LIBRARY OF THE THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY

PRINCETON.

N. J.

Presented by

The.

Widow

ot* Gre.or<ge-T)w<2c7\h,

Division.

J3K4-C
*..

Section

1873
v.

2 2-3
;

IE]

'

HISTORY OF RUSSIA,
JFrom
tlje

earliest

Ctmes

to

1880.

BY

ALFRED "RAM BAUD,

CHIEF OF THE CABINET OF THE MINISTER OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION AND FINE ARTS, AT PARIS CORRESPONDING MEMBER OF THE ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OF
ST.
J

PETERSBURG

ETC., ETC.

THIS

WORK HAS BEEN CROWNED

BY THE FRENCH ACADEMY.

TRANSLATED BY

L. B.

LANG.

EDITED AND ENLARGED BY NATHAN HASKELL DOLE.

INCLUDING

A HISTORY

OF THE TURKO-RUSSIAN WAR OF

1877-78,

FROM THE BEST AUTHORITIES, BY THE EDITOR.

FULLY ILLUSTRATED.

THREE VOLUMES BOUND

Vol.
IT.

IN
II.

TWO.

Part
III.

Vol.

BOSTON:
H. A.

BOLLES AND COMPANY,

PU BLISHERS.

Copyright, 1882.

Bi ESTES

AND LAURIAI.

CONTENTS.
VOLUME
CATHERINE THE SECOND
II.

(Continued).

CHAPTER
:

X.

GOVERNMENT AND REFORMS.

1763-1796.
the Helpers of Catherine the Second: The Great Legislative Commission (1766 1768).
Letters and Arts.

Administration and Justice: Colonization. Public The French Philosophers

CHAPTER
XI.
:

Instruction.

203-220

CATHERINE THE SECOND

1780-1796.
Franco- Russian Mediation
at

LAST YEARS.

union of the Crimea (1783).

War

Third Partition Revolution. War with Persia

Grodno.
:

with

Sweden

Re Armed Neutrality Second War with Turkey (1787-1792) and Poland: Diet (1788 - 1790). Second French Kosciuszko. Catherine the Second and
Teschen (1779).
(1780).

Partition

of

of

........
the

221 - 247

CHAPTER

XII.

PAUL THE FIRST.

1796-1801.
Peace Policy
Italy,
:

Accession to the Second Coalition.

Switzerland, Holland,

and Naples.

Alliance
XIII.

Campaigns of the
with

Ionian Islands,
:

Bonaparte
.
.

League of the Neutrals and the Great Scheme against India

The 248 - 270

CHAPTER
ALEXANDER THE FIRST
First
:

FOREIGN AFFAIRS.
and Treaty of

1801-1835.

War

with Napoleon
:

Austerlitz, Eylau, Friedland,

Tilsit.

Wars with England, Sweden, Austria, Turkey, and Persia. The Causes of the Second War with Napoleon. Grand Duchy of Warsaw " Patriotic War " Burning of Moscow Destruction of Battle of Borodino Campaigns of Germany and France Treaties of Vienna and the Grand Army. Paris. Kingdom of Poland Congresses at Aix-la-Chapelle, Carlsbad, Laybach,
Interview at Erfurt
:

and Verona

271 - 373


IV

CONTEXTS.

CHAPTER
ALEXANDER THE FIRST
Early Years
tion.
:

XIV.

INTERNAL AFFAIRS.
the Ministers

1801- 1825.
:

the Triumvirate
:

Liberal Measures
;

Speranski
Reform.

Public Instruc-

Social

Colonies.

Secret

Council of the Empire

Araktche'ef
Societies
: :

projected Civil

Code
;

Ideas of

Political

and University Reaction

Scientific

Military

Poland.

Literary and

Movement 374 - 39

VOLUME
CHAPTEE
1825-1855.
The December
Insurrection.
I.

III.

NICHOLAS THE FIRST.

Administration and Reforms. Literature

CHAPTER
1835-1855.
II.

13-35

AFFAIRS IN ASIA AND THE POLISH INSURRECTION.

Persian

War (1826-

1829).

The Russians and English

1828).

First Turkish War;

in Asia.

Liberation of Greece

(1826-

The
III.

Polish Insurrection (1831)

36-71

CHAPTER
1825-1855.
Hostility against France: the Eastern Question.

NICHOLAS THE FIRST: FOREIGN RELATIONS.

and Forty -eight.

Intervention

Revolution
IV.

of Eighteen

in

Hungary

Hundred 72-8-1

CHAPTER
1853-1855.
Louis Napoleon.
Tin

THE CRIMEAN WAR.

Holy

Sites.

Change the English Cabinet. Ministry of Lord Aberdeen. Conversations between the Emperor Nicholas and Gcor_
in

Sir

Hamilton Seymour

85-100

CHAPTER
1853-1855.
Prince Menshikof at Constantinople.

V.

THE CRIMEAN WAR.

M.

Lord
Fleel
at

Stratford de RedclifTe.
at

Benedetti.

The French
Squadrons

Salami's.

Prince Menshikof.

Resistance of the Porte.

Besika.
cross

French

ami

English

Mediation of Austria.

Turkish

Modifications.

views at Olmiitz and Warsaw,

Warlike The Porte

The Russians

Feelings.

Colonel Rose. Threatening Demands The Departure. The Diplomatic The Vienna Note. the Napoleon Third.
Prince's
Conflict.
Official

of

Prutli.

the

Inter-

declares

War

101-126

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER

VI.

THE CRIMEAN WAR.

1853-1855.
Campaign

of Sinope.

Final Diplomatic Diplomatic The French and English the Black Napoleon the Third and the Vienna. Letters Rupture. Count Orlof Emperor Nicholas. Austria and Prussia agree with France and England
of the Danube.

Austrian
at

Interests.

Efforts.

Affair

Fleets in

Sea.

of

to

maintain the Turkish Empire

127-144

CHAPTER

VII.

THE CRIMEAN WAR.

1853-1855.
Military Arrangements of France and England.

Varna.

Siege
:

of Silistria.

Dobrudsha

the Cholera.

The Armies Bombardment Odessa. Expedition The Crimea. Alma.

Allied
of

at Gnllipoli

and

into the

Battle of the

Sevastopol 145

- 173

CHAPTER

VIII.

THE CRIMEAN WAR.

1855 - 1856.
Accession of Alexander.

End of the Crimean War. Treaty of Paris

CHAPTER
IX.

174-206

ALEXANDER THE SECOND AND THE REFORMS.

1856- 1877.
Imperial Manifestoes and Decrees.

The Act
:

of the Nineteenth of February, Eighteen

;

Hundred and Sixty -one

Insurrection.

Judicial

Reforms

Local Self-government.
:

The Polish
.

Intellectual

Movement

Material Progress

Education

207-256

CHAPTER
1856-1880.
The Natural and
torical
tific

X.

LITERATURE AND ART DURING THE REIGN OF ALEXANDER THE SECOND.

Realistic Schools.

Drama and Movement

Novel.

History.

Influence of the French Novelists.

Periodicals.

The Hisand Scien-

The

Artistic

257-281

CHAPTER

XI.

ALEXANDER THE SECOND.

1856 - 1880.
The Advance
Russian Power beyond the Caucasus. Gortchakof's Circular Note. The Khanates. The Khivan Central Shamil and the United 282 - 308 Expeditions. Relations with China, Japan, and
of
Circassians.

Asia.

the

States

vi

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER

XII.

ALEXANDER THE SECOND. European Relations from 1856 until 1877.

Austria and

Prussia aud Denmark. Imperial Interviews; Gortchakof's Circular The Prussian Reorganization Army Eighteen Hundred and Seventy
Italy.

the Franco-

Prussian

War.

Alliance.

Note
.

of

-one.

o* the

309 - 324

CHAPTER

XIII.

THE EASTERN QUESTION.

1875-1877.
The Herzegovinian and Bosnian Insurrection.
ish Massacres.
at

Count Andrassy's Note. The Turk Diplomatic Measures. The Berlin Memorandum. Events Constantinople. The Serbian War 325 - 346

.......
XIV.

CHAPTER
1877.
Russia's Declaration of

THE TURKO-RUSSIAN WAR.

War.

The

the

Balkans

Shipka Pass.

Battle of Shipka Pass.

Operations on

Capture

Passage of the Danube.

of

Nikopolis.

the

Lom.

Third Battle of Plevna

The Advance across Repulse Plevna.

at

347 - 368

CHAPTER
1877.

XV.

THH TURKO-RUSSIAN WAR.

The Campaign
in Asia.

Reverses.

Passage of the Balkans.

Storming Advance upon Constantinople. End

Battle of Aladja-Dngh.

of Kars.

of the

War 36 fJ - 381

CHAPTER
1881.
Popular Discontent.

XVI.

ASSASSINATION OF THE EMPEROR.

Assassination of the

Emperor

382 - 388

INDEX

389

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

VOLUME
Alexander
II

II.

(Continued).
Page
Frontispiece

Siberian of the Yakutsk Province

208
214

Statue of Peter the Great

The Great Theatre The Winter Palace

218
227 234
in

Warsaw
Church of Peter and Paul
Palace of Paul the First
the Fortress

252
256 262

Palace of the Grand Master, Malta

Copenhagen

268

The Death

of Paul announced to
of

Alexander

270
280

The Ramparts

Ulm
in the

Meeting of Napoleon and Alexander

River Niemen

Middle of the
294 304 312

View

in Erfurt

Bukarest

Church

in

Moscow

336 340 350

354

Palace of Petrowsky

View

in

Hamburg

Frankfort
Palace of the Louvre

360

viii

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
Page

Street in Ratisbon

370 376

Imperial Library
Siberians

382 391

Study of the Emperor, Winter Palace

The Exchange,

or Palace of the Bourse

394

The Admiralty

...

396

The Mikhail Palace

398

VOLUME
Alexander's Column

III.

....

15
37

Gate

in

Teheran

Street Scene in

Erzerum
in

40

Porcelain

Tower

Pekin

42
52
71

Lazienski Park

Convict Train
at

The Danube
Mosque
of

Buda

80
98

Omar, Jerusalem

View

of Constantinople

101

Interior of a Kiosque in the Seraglio

104

Fountain

in

Constantinople

120
126

Turkish Commandant

Trebizond
Fortress of Bielgrad

133
135 135 148

View

of Bielgrad

Russian Light Cavalry

Military Evolutions in the

Champs de Mars

154
166 173
181

Charge of the Light Brigade

Statue of the Emperor Nicholas
Interior of St. Isaac's Cathedral

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
Muscovite Cavalry

Page

185 195 219 228 235

246
261

Capture of the Malakoff

Native of Kamtchatka

Bridge over the Neva

Church of the Holy Cross, Warsaw

Mittau, Capital of Kurland

Russian Sledges
Nijni

Novgorod

275
283

Circassian Soldier

Slavonic Convent at

Mount Athos

291
305
317 326

Nikolayevsk on the

A moor

Prussian Castle

Montenegrin Senator
Bulgarian Tramps

333

Rumanian Peasant

349
355 366

A Roman
View

Mausoleum

of Plevna

Fortress of Kars

372
380

Assassination of Alexander the Second

Alexander the Second Lying

in State

384 387

Inauguration of Alexander the Third

HISTORY OF RUSSIA,
iFrom
tjje

Earliest

imt$

to

1880,

Vol.

II.

CHAPTER

X.

CATHERINE THE SECOND: GOVERNMENT

AND REFORMS.
17G2-1796.
:

The Helpers of Catherine the Second

the Great Legislative Administration and Justice: ColoCommission (1766-1768). Letters and Arts. The Public Instruction. nization.

French Philosophers.

THE HELPERS OP CATHERINE THE SECOND: THE GREAT LEGISLATIVE COMMISSION.

CATHERINE THE SECOND

lovers.

surrounded herself with

distinguished fellow-workers, some of

whom

were her

In the early part of her reign, the influence of the

:

Orlofs was predominant

these were Gregory Orlof, the favorite

artillery,

above

all others,

grand master of the

by

whom
;

she

had a recognized son, Alexis, created Count Bobrinski

Orlof, the admiral,

Alexis

who

received the

name

of Tchesmenski after

the expedition to the Archipelago, and was involved in the

tragic history of the Princess Tarankof;
;

Feodor Orlof, who

Orlof,

became procurator-general of the senate Vladimir was director of the Academy of Sciences at the age
one.

who

of twenty-

Russian writer asserts that from seventeen hundred

to seventeen

and sixty-two
in

hundred and eighty-three they

re-

ceived forty-five thousand serfs and seventeen million rubles

money from

the Empress.

Later, the favor of the Orlofs

was outweighed by

that of Potemkin, or Patiomkin, creator of

New

Russia, organizer of the Crimea, conqueror of the Otto-

201

HISTORY OP RUSSIA.
in the second

[Chap. X.

mans

war with. Turkey, and who,

as Prince of

the Taurid, displayed his Asiatic luxury in his palace of the

During the two years of his influence he received thirty-seven thousand serfs and nine million rubles, and his income in seventeen hundred and eightyfive was calculated at four hundred thousand rubles. At one of his feasts seventy thousand rubles worth of wax candles were burnt. Of all the favorites who, in the latter part of the reign, succeeded each other so rapidly, only one had any real This was Platon Zubof, whose brother influence over affairs. In the direction of Valerian conducted the war with Persia. foreign affairs were distinguished Nikita Panin, and later Bezborodko, Ostermann, Markof, and Vorontsof. Repnin and Sievers in Poland, Budberg at Stockholm, Semen Vorontsof
at Saint Petersburg.

same name

in London,

name

in

and Dmitri Galitsuin at Paris, made themselves a diplomacy. The army was commanded by Alexan;

der Galitsuin, Dolgoruki, Rumiantsof, and Suvorof

the

fleet-

by Greig,

of the fine arts

and Tchitchagof Ivan Betski had charge and of benevolent institutions. From seventeen hundred and sixty-six to seventeen hundred and sixty-eight, Catherine the Second assembled, first at
Spiridof,
;

Moscow and

afterwards at Saint Petersburg, the commissron

of the

for the compilation

new
all

code.

This commission was

composed of deputies from all the orders and all the

the services of the State, from

races of the empire.

Besides the

delegates from the senate, the synod, and the colleges and the
courts of police, the nobles elected a representative for each
district,

the citizens one for every city, the free colonists one
province, the soldiers, militia, and other
fighting

for every

men

also

one for each

province

the

Crown

peasants,

the

fixed tribes, whether Christians or not, equally elected one for

each province

the deputation of the Cossack armies was fixed

by

their atamans.

Six hundred and fifty-two deputies assembled at

officials,

Moscow

nobles, citizens, peasants, Tatars,

Kalmuiki, Lapps,

DIDEROT AND CATHERINE

II.

1762-1796.]

CATHERINE

II.

REFORMS.
to

205
be furnished

Samoyedui, and many others.

with
full

Each man was

powers, and with instructions compiled by at least

Each received a medal with Catherine's and the motto, "Eor the happiness of each and of all, December fourteen, seventeen hundred and sixty-six." They
five of the electors.

effigy,

were exempted forever from

tions for the

all

corporal

punishments, and
In the "Instruc-

were declared inviolable during the session.

arrangement of the
to

New Code "

expression,

Catherine the
the

Second, according

her

own

" pillaged "

ria.

philosophers of the West, especially Montesquieu and Becca" It contained," says the prudent Panin, " axioms that

would knock a wall clown." Catherine the Second assures Book of Instructions " was interdicted at Paris. Among the ideas of which she boasted, we meet with
Voltaire that her "

the following, which were certainly calculated to enrage Louis the Fifteenth
:

"

The
for

nation

is

not

made

for the sovereign,

but the sovereign

the nation.

Equality consists in the

;

obedience of the citizens to the law alone

to

liberty

is

the right

do everything that

is

not forbidden by law.

It is better to

spare ten guilty

men

than to put one innocent

for convicting

man

to death.

Torture

is

an admirable means

an innocent but

weakly man, and

guilty."

for saving a stout fellow even

when he

is

Other maxims loudly condemned

intolerance, relig-

ious persecutions,

and cruel punishments.

The assembly nominated many committees, and held more than two hundred sittings. The most vexed questions were
openly discussed.
cial rights,

Nobles of the Baltic claimed their provin-

merchants brought forward municipal organization

economical questions, gentlemen proposed to

and

all

sorts of

restrain the rights of masters,

and

to

pronounce the pregnant

words, " enfranchisement of the peasants."

An

assembly so

numerous, so divided by the interests of

code.
period,

classes,

and of such

various races, was not one, however, that could arrange a

It

new

was a work almost impossible

itself

in the

Russia of that
conflicting

which contained within

so

many

206
forces.

HISTORY OF RUSSIA.
The Empress,
forced by the Turkish

[Chap. X.

war

to

break up

the assembly, expressed herself satisfied with her experiment. " The Commission for the Code has given me light and knowl-

edge

for all the empire.

I

know now what

It

is

necessary,
all

and

with what

should occupy myself.

has elaborated
affairs

parts

of the legislation,
I should

and has distributed the

it

under heads.

have done more had

not been for the

war

witli

Turkey, but a unity hitherto unknown in the principles and

methods of discussion has been introduced."

as the French States-general of thirteen

These States-

general of Russia influenced the laws of Catherine the Second,

hundred and

fifty-six,

of fourteen hundred and thirteen, or of the sixteenth century,

influenced the laws of Charles the Fifth, Charles the Seventh,

and the

later Valois.

In the course of the discussions the deputy noble Korobin

proposed to suppress the rights of property over the

to leave the
tasof,

serfs,

and
Pro-

masters only the right of superintendence.

another deputy, then observed that " in that case nothfree,

ing would remain but to set the peasant

but that,
to

if this

was the intention of the Empress,

gradually."

it

was necessary
founded,

proceed

The Economical

Society,

under the

auspices of Catherine the Second, by the care of Gregory Orlof and other " patriots," proposed the question for public competition.

paper, dated from Aix-la-Chapelle, pronouncing for

emancipation, obtained the prize, but other influences were at

work
posed
ence

to efface the

recollection of this essay from the

mind

of

the Empress.

The

Russian aristocracy were then

is

little

dis-

to abdicate

their rights, as

shown by

the conversa-

tions of Princess Dashkof with Diderot, and the correspond-

of

Dmitri

Galitsuin.

Catherine

confined
trial

herself

to

repressing the most crying abuses.

tuidof, convicted of

The

of Daria Sal-

having caused the death of forty of her

servants

by

torture,
serf,

shows

to

what a point

slavery,

which

degrades the

could

demoralize the masters.

She was
to

condemned

in seventeen

hundred and sixty-eight

be pub-

1762-1796.]

CATHERINE
and

II.:

REFORMS.
imprisonment
;

207
her

licly
still

pilloried,
lives in

to perpetual

memory

the legends of the people.

The same reasons

which had caused the establishment of serfage in the time of Boris Godnnof seemed to operate in favor of its continuance.
Catherine the Second, in spite of a few generous impulses,
finally

aggravated the existing state of things.

fifty

More than

one hundred and

formed into
favorites.

serfs

thousand Crown peasants were transof nobles, by being distributed among her

In seventeen hundred and sixty-seven an edict forto

bade peasants
ized to send

complain of their masters,

at

who were
to
force

authorto

them

will

to

Siberia, or

them

become

recruits.

Moreover, Catherine the Second established

it

serfage in Little Russia, where

existence.

had hitherto had no

legal

ADMINISTRATION AND JUSTICE COLONIZATION.

:

The Empress's
its

" Council " deprived the Senate of part of

latter,
all

political

importance; but the

its

divided into six dethe branches of the

partments, had under

public administration.

jurisdiction

Catherine

the

Second

attacked the
in-

custom of exactions and peculations, which was the most

veterate evil of this administration.

consider it," says a ukas of seventeen hundred and sixty-two, " as our essential
to declare to the people, with
for a

"

We

and necessary duty

ness of heart, that

true bitter-

we

long time have heard, and to-day,

by manifest deeds, see

to

what a degree corruption has prois

gressed in our empire, so that there

the government in which

hardly an

office
is

in

that divine action, justice,

If

not

attacked by the infection of this pest.

place,

any one asks

for a

he must pay for

it is

it

if

man
;

has to defend himself

against calumny,

with money

if

any one wishes

falsely

to accuse his neighbor,

he can by

gifts insure

the success of

his

wicked designs.

Many

judges have transformed into a

market the sacred place where they should administer justice in the name of the Almighty, using the position of judge, to

208

HISTORY OF RUSSIA.

[Chap. X.

estedness, in such

which we appointed them, expecting impartiality and disintera manner as to divert to their own use the revenues accruing, and build up their own houses, and
not for the service of God, the Empress, and the State.

Our

heart trembled when we learned that a registrar of the Gov-

ernment Court of Police

at

Novgorod found an opportunity,

while receiving the oath of allegiance from

accept from each a piece of money."

my

subjects, to

One way

of securing the administration of the laws was,

perhaps, to diminish the extent of the governments, which

placed the seat of justice too far from the people governed.

By an

edict of seventeen
all

hundred and seventy-five Catherine

Instead

modified

the territorial divisions of the empire.

of fifteen provinces she created fifty governments, each with a

population of from three hundred thousand to four hundred

thousand souls, and subdivided into

districts of

twenty thouits

sand to thirty thousand inhabitants.

governor

Every province had

governor-generals,

and

its

vice-governor

the

or

namiestniki, were invested with authority over two or three

Thus Livonia, Esthonia, and Kurland had each a governor, while a governor-general had jurisdiction over
governments.
the three provinces.

Administration was definitely separated

from justice

each governor was aided by a council of regency

for administration

and the

police,

by a chamber of finance

for

taxes, property, mines,

the census, and by a college of procharity.

vision for hospitals

and public
in

The
classes.

judicial

system increased the profound separation of

each
district,

There were,
civil

district

tribunals

for

gentlemen,
tices

magistrates for the townspeople, inferior juscolonists

for

the

free

and

for

the

Crown

peasants.
text of

There was nothing

law
seigniorial abuses

for the serfs

of the nobles.

No

positively authorized
;

the

repression

of the most cruel

the sense of two articles of the military code

lives

had

to

be wrested before even the

of agricultural slaves

could be protected.

To

serve as courts of appeal, a supreme

SIBERIAN OF THE YAKUTSK PROVINCE.

1762-1796.]
tribunal, a
justice

CATHERINE

II.:

EEFORMS.

209

were

government magistracy, and a superior court of to be found in the principal city of each division
All this hierarchy
led to a court of final

of government.

appeal in the senate.

In the towns of the government there

were

for certain criminal causes juries

which acted

as justices

of the peace in civil actions.

The
each

nobility received a sort of provincial organization.

In

government there existed an assembly of the nobles, which elected a marshal and other dignitaries and as Cath;

erine the Second could not revoke the law of Peter the Third,

she obliged gentlemen to join the army by depriving those

nobles of the right of suffrage in the elections

who had

not

obtained the rank of

prerogatives of their

officers,

and also refused them certain

own

order.
citi-

Special privileges were accorded to the merchants and

zens of the towns

among them were

the election of their

magistrates, and individual jurisdiction, and a kind of municipal

self-government.
:

three guilds
less

than ten

The merchants were divided into to the first belonged men with a capital of not thousand rubles to the second, those who had
;

at least

one thousand
five

to

the

third,

those with a property

worth more than

citizens

hundred

rubles.

Below

this, all

the

were confounded

in the appellation of

mieshtchane, or

townsmen.

In the matter of

commerce and trade Catherine

consumpby establishing granaries for

renounced the system of protection and surveillance adopted

by Peter
tion of

the Great, except in the case of cereals, the

to regulate

which she tried

surplus stores.

She
the

finally

suppressed the three colleges of

mines, manufactures, and commerce.

To people

uninhabited

though

fertile

lands

of the
;

Volga and the Ukraina, Catherine called in foreign colonists she offered them capital to aid in their settlement, for which no interest was to be asked for the space of ten years, and

exempted them from all taxes for thirty years. These colonists were chiefly Germans, the greater part from the PalatiVOL.
II.

14

210
nate.

HISTORY OF RUSSIA.

[Chap. X.

Like Frederic the Second, she offered an asylum to

all

the Moravians, and to

persecuted religious sects.

In the

province of Saratof alone she induced twelve thousand families to

take

up

their abode,

and

their descendants,

now

very

numerous,

still

inhabit the country, and preserve unbroken the

German language and customs.

teen hundred and seventy-one as

In the single year of seven-

many

as twenty-six thousand

people answered her appeal.

The suppression

ate of Little Russia in seventeen

of the hetmanhundred and sixty-two, and

the extinction of the setcha of the Zaporoshtsui, favored colo-

The Empress founded nearly two hundred new towns, many of which, as Ekaterinburg and Ekaterinoslaf, " Glory of Catherine," bore her name. They have not all
nization.

prospered, but in seventeen hundred and ninety-three Pallas

reckoned a population of thirty-three thousand

at Saratof.

One reform
Catherine
the

projected

by Peter the First and clumsily

this

pushed forward by Peter the Third was accomplished by

Second
:

was the secularization of the

Church property.

clergy, regular as well as secular,

The monastery
thirty-five

of

The number of peasants belonging to the amounted to nearly a million. Saint Cyril, on the White Lake, possessed
;

thousand

that of Saint Sergius, at Troitsa, one hun-

dred and twenty thousand.

The abbots

of these monasteries

may be compared
wards

to the sovereign prelates, to the priest-kings

on

the banks of the Rhine.

to protest so

Catherine the

Second, who was

after-

loudly against the resumption of Church

property during the French Revolution, effected this important change with the greatest quietness.

She formed

comto

mission of churchmen and

carry out the operation.

functionaries,

who managed

The property of the Church was placed under the administration of an " economical commission," charged with the collection of the revenues, in the pro-

portion of a ruble and a half for every male peasant.

The

monasteries, thus converted

sioners,

from

proprietors to

were indemnified according to their

Crown-penimportance, and

1762-1796.]

CATHERINE

II.

REFORMS.

211

were divided into three

invalids,

classes.

Their surplus revenues were

applied to the foundation of ecclesiastical schools,

homes

for

and

hospitals.

Catherine the Second wrote to Voltaire an account of the

work of the commission in compiling the code. " I think you will be pleased by this assembly, where the orthodox man is to be found seated between the heretic and the Mussulman,
all

three listening to the voice of an idolater,

and

all

four con-

sulting

how

to

render their conclusion palatable to

all."

This

was the

restoration of religious tolerance in Russia, after the

reign of the pious Elisabeth.

In the provinces taken from

Poland, a natural reaction from the Polish system obtained

many

converts to orthodoxy
to

in the latter years of the reign

five

they amounted

one million

hundred thousand

souls.

Catherine the Second was so far from persecuting the Catholics,

that she allowed the Jesuits, notwithstanding

the sup-

pression of their order by

purchase the right of existence

ized the

Pope Clement the Fourteenth, to in White Russia. She authorand thus

Volga Tatars

to

rebuild their mosques,

checked the Mussulman emigration which had been provoked

by

Elisabeth's' severity.

The

raskolniki were protected, re-

assured, and freed from the double tax imposed on them by Peter the Great, and the "bureau " of the raskolniki was suppressed.

The population
to forty millions,

of the empire increased during this reign

it

but

was

still

far too small to cultivate the

vast plains.

One

great obstacle to the multiplication of in-

habitants has always been the want of hygiene, the lack of

doctors, the absence of all assistance from science,
tality of children,

and the mor-

which

offsets

the fruitfulness of marriages.

Catherine the Second did everything that could be done at

that period.

She encouraged the study of medicine, sent for foreign physicians, founded a " department of the College of

Pharmacy

" at

Moscow, and helped

to build manufactories of

surgical instruments.

In seventeen hundred and sixty-nine,

212

HISTORY OF RUSSIA.

[Chap. X.

when she was forty years Moscow, and vanquished

the
first

old, she introduced inoculation into

the popular outcry by being herself

to

subject.

She desired Dimsdale, the Englishman,

inoculate her as well as her son

by Gregory
medals

Orlof.
in

The

sen-

ate presented her with twelve gold

honor of the
or-

occasion,

and the
the

hall of the senate-house at

bas-relief,

Moscow was
Dimsdale,"

namented with a
others
to

with the inscription, " She saved

" Dr.

danger of herself."

says

Andreif, " received a fee of ten*thousand pounds for the operation,

an animal pension of

five

hundred pounds, and the

title

of Baron.

The

little

boy, Markof,

who

furnished the matter,

was made an hereditary noble."

the

This was at the time that

small-pox carried off Louis the Fifteenth and the children of

King

of Spain.

"

That

is

very strange," writes Catherine

to Voltaire;

and

again, "

More people have been inoculated

here in one month than have been inoculated in Vienna in a

year."

.Even the natives of Siberia recognized the benefits of

invention, but the Mussulmans, the raskolniki,

the

new
it.

and

part of the Russian people energetically held themselves aloof

from

PUBLIC INSTRUCTION. -LETTERS AND ARTS. - THE FRENCH PHILOSOPHERS.

The Empress displayed
the greatest eagerness to instruct
if

the upper and middle classes,

she did not seek to touch the

people, properly speaking, the

mass of
still

whom

could not be
"

penetrated by a culture that was

superficial.

To

tri-

umph
new

over the superstitions of ages," were the words she dic-

tated to Bet ski, " to give a

life to

new
a

one's people,

is

education, and so to speak a work demanding incredible toil,

and of which posterity alone

will reap the fruits."

lack of a national education, " Russia wanted the class of

From the men

so rarely

known

in other countries as the third estate."

Ivan Betski, one

of those truly disinterested friends of humanity

who

appear in history, and

who had

cultivated his natural talents

1762-1796.]

CATHERINE
European

II.

REFORMS.
thought
it

213
necessary

by study
would
to

in the

universities,

that the children should be taught

fail to

by Russians,

as foreigners

understand

how much

in their pupils

belonged

and manners of the country. The moment had not yet come when Russia could do without foreign teachers. The scheme of national education for children of all classes, presented by Betski, could only partially be
the religion, habits,
realized
alone.
;

secondary schools were founded

in

the great cities

Catherine the Second also interested herself in the

At the monastery or institute of Smolna she assembled four hundred and eighty young girls, under " We the direction of a Frenchwoman, Madame Lafond. want them to be neither prudes nor coquettes," she writes to Voltaire. French and other foreign languages and accominstruction of

women.

plishments were taught there

but the line between the pupils

of noble birth and tradesmen's daughters was sharply drawn.

splendid foundation of Catherine's was the " Vospitatelnui

or house of education for foundlings, at

Moscow, in hundred and sixty-three, a large establishment, which afterwards was the admiration of Napoleon the First, and where nearly forty thousand children in need of assistseventeen

Dom,"

ance, or girl-pupils, were received in Catherine's reign.

serf

The

who married one

of these orphans

became

free.

The

influence of French genius over Russian

civilization

greatly increased during the reign of Catherine the Second.

The

national poets translated

and imitated the French

classics

of the seventeenth century.

The

great Russian nobles, the

it

Vorontsofs and the Galitsuins, esteemed

also the

an honor, as did

French

nobility, to correspond

with the writers and

thinkers of the West.

This French influence was beneficial,

classes

although
society,

it

was exercised only upon the upper

of

and

often stopped at the exterior without modifying

It

very essentially either the character or the manners.

this that introduced or

was

strengthened in the Russian nobility

those ideas of religious tolerance, of moral dignity, of respect

214
for the

HISTORY OF RUSSIA.

[Chap. X.

human body, even

and
political liberty,

in the person of a

slave,

those

habits of courtesy and politeness, those aspirations after social

justice

which must,

in the

long run, per-

form

their work, soften the hardness of the old boyars, prepare

classes,

for the emancipation of the agricultural

and
the

bring

about the regeneration of Russia.

We

shall,

however, see the

Russian nobility, who had apparently followed

French

philosophers into their most audacious deductions, suddenly

frightened at the most moderate reforms of seventeen hundred and eighty-nine, and declaring loudly against revolutionary France. We shall find characters in which a slight varnish
of Parisian civilization scarcely hides the ancient barbarism,

but

it

was not
fascinated

in vain that

Catherine's contemporaries had

Voltaire,

been

by Montesquieu, by

and by the
prevented

American

revolution.

The

social state of Russia, divided into

serfs,

an aristocracy of proprietors and a people of

the country from advancing with the

same

rapidity as France,

but French ideas certainly did not delay

seeking the sympathy of French writers

its

progress.

Catherine the Second was not less eager than her nobles in
;

her correspondence
the

with

philosophers added

not a

little

to her prestige in

Europe of the eighteenth century, and to her fame with posterity.

her service, and he sent her regular

affairs

She attracted Grimm, once a friend of Rousseau, to letters from Paris on the She
affected a gracious familiarity towards

of France.

the Prince de Ligne, and the French ambassador, Count de

Segur, both

men

distinguished for wit and literary talents

admitted
genious

them
flatteries

into

her travelling-carriage

during

long

journey to the South, and

was able to respond to their in-

and
la

to their lively sallies.

She wished

to

employ Mercier de

Riviere,

and

to secure the services of

Beccaria, author of the "Treatise on Crimes and Penalties";

she declared herself the

"good

friend " of

.Madame

GeofFrin,

whose Parisian salon was one of the intellectual powers of that She offered to D'Aleinbert, who refused it, the superepoch.

1762-1796.]

CATHERINE

II.:

REFORMS.

215
Paul, heir to

intendence of the education of the Grand

the throne
;

Duke

later,

she placed the Swiss Laharpe, celebrated

for his republican opinions, with her

grandsons Alexander and

She thanked Marniontel for sending her his Konstantin. " Belisarius," " a book which deserves to be translated into
all

languages," caused a translation of

it

to

be made by her
library,

friends during a voyage

down
it
;

the

Volga, and even under" Encyclo;

took the ninth chapter herself.

yet allowed
paedia,"

She bought Diderot's

subscribed to the
to

him

to enjoy

which was forbidden

appear in

Paris

admired

book which was condemned by the Parliament to be burned, and the " Lettre sur les Aveugles," which had consigned the philosopher to the Bastile. She sent for the author to come to Saint Petersburg, and entertained him for a month with the most brilliant hospitality. The great sculptor Falconet, the friend of Diderot and the Encyclopaedists, was already there, working at the statue of Peter the Great, which he represents as riding a horse in the act of springing, and with the fore feet in the air. His hind feet tread on a serpent of brass, the symbol of envy, and the
serpent biting the flowing
librium.
tail

the " Pensees Philosophiques," a

of the horse secures his equi-

The whole was mounted on an immense boulder

This
boulder
represented

brought from a morass in Karelia eleven versts from Saint

Petersburg.

emblematically the

rude obstacles which Peter the Great had to overcome.

It

was with Voltaire, above

all,

that Catherine kept

close correspondence,
sixty-three,

beginning

in

up a seventeen hundred and

and continuing to the death of the great man in seventeen hundred and seventy-eight. She herself endeavored to keep him informed, not only of her victories, but of her
reforms, her efforts at legislation and labors for the colonization of Russia,
in
his
gift.

knowing that the hermit of Ferney had fame She gave money to his proteges, the families of
and, after the expedition of Alexis Orlof to

Sirven and Calas, victims of the judicial abuses of the eighteenth century
;

216

HISTORY OF RUSSIA.
him
to

[Chap. X.

the Archipelago, caused

hope

for

the resurrection of
of rubles

Greece.
to

In a single year she spent one million

acquire the pictures and works of art of the most cele-

brated painters of the Italian and Flemish schools, and en-

dowed

the capital of Peter the

Great with

artistic

splendors

hitherto

unknown.

In spite of her devotion to the arts and letters of the 'West,

Catherine piqued herself on being, above everything, a Russian

Empress
last

and jestingly bade her doctor

to bleed her

of her

drop of German blood.

She has a place

of her

own

in

Russian literature of the eighteenth centurv, having compiled

for the use of her

grandsons Alexander and Konstantin the

C," stories from Russian history, and

"

Grandmother's

A B

the " Library

tin,"

of the

which had the honor

Grand Dukes Alexander and Konstanto be printed in Germany. The

prefaces to her laws, her correspondence in Russian, French,

and German with her ministers, her governors, and friends in France and Germany, prove her literary activity. She also

worked

for the

new-born Russian

theatre,

and ridiculed hythe

discontent

pocrisy, avarice,

prejudice against education,

caused by government decrees, the use of French words, the

frivolous intrigues of the nobles,

Russians abroad
in her

in

her lyric

and the extravagance of the drama called " Oleg," the first
is

expedition of the Russians against Constantinople

celebrated

comedy

of

Hofe

Bogattiir, or " Misfortune, the Knight," "

she turns into ridicule her enemy, the adventurous Gustavus the

Third

in those of "

The Charlatan

"

and

"

The Mystified Man

who sought for dupes even in Russia; while " The Birthday of .Madame Vortchalkina," " O Time," and
she chastises Cagliostro,

many
what

others are

satires

on contemporary manners.

In the

palace of the Hermitage she had a theatre constructed some-

model of that at Mycenae, where the plays of the Prince de Ligne, the Count de Segur, Strogonof, and her own were performed. Most of the pieces which the Empress comafter the

posed have been collected and published.

They were written

1762-1796.]

CATHERINE

II.:

REFORMS.

21?
d'Anteroche,

in

French.
his

Against the French

Abbe Chappe

and

voyage to Siberia, she published an amusing pam-

The Antidote." Finally, she has left in French some curious memoirs about her arrival in Russia and her life as a Grand Duchess. The Russian Academy, modelled in some degree after the
French, was founded in seventeen hundred and eighty-three,

phlet, called "

on the suggestion of Princess Dashkof, then President of the

Academy
of the

of Sciences.

It

" fixing the rules of the orthography,

was intrusted with the task of grammar, and prosody

the

Russian language, and of encouraging the study of

It

Russian history."
dictionary

then undertook

publication

of a

which
to

appeared

from

seventeen

hundred
It

and
in-

eighty-nine

seventeen
six

hundred and ninety-nine.

cluded

in its

volumes forty-three thousand two hundred

and

fifty-seven words,

and was re-edited from eighteen hunfifty.

dred and forty to eighteen hundred and

Indeed, the
that

Russian
illustrious

Academy was so much men of letters and the

in

fashion

the most

highest ladies of rank

Princess Dashkof, the poets Derzhavin, Fon-Vizin, Kniazhnin,

and Count Ivan Shuvalof

tionary.
for

insisted on

working

Catherine herself compiled "

first

Complementary Notes
the

at the dic"

the

volume.

In eighteen

hundred and
Russian
title

thirty-five

the

minister

Uvarof

amalgamated

Academy

with the
Class."

Academy
made

of Sciences, under the

of " Second

Catherine
letters.

herself the patroness of Russian

recital of a certain

If she

imposed the

men number

of

of

lines

from the " Telemakhid " of Trediakovski as a penance on

her friends of Tsarkoe-Selo, or the Hermitage, she encouraged

Fon-Vizin, the comic author, the Russian Moliere,

who

in his

comedy
in

of "

The Brigadier

"

derided those whose only source

of information was the French romances, and

his Niedorosl, or "

who

ridiculed

frivolity of the

The Spoilt Child," the indolence and voung Russian nobles, the foolish infatuation

218

HISTORY OF RUSSIA.

[Chap. X.

of their parents, and the strange choice of their preceptors.

The

principal characters of
is

"The Brigadier"

are Ivanushka,
a

who

studying in Paris and hates everything Russian, and

councillor

who

is

the type of an absurd

official.

Both pieces

are found to be faulty

when examined

critically.

The

dia-

logue

is

not connected

the persons represented are mere cari-

catures, but they are full of wit

and end wholly

in the

French

fashion.

The

taste

for

the pleasures of wit was spread by

the theatre of Sumarokof, whose plays were often acted by the corps of cadets, at the court and in public places.

In

many

ways

it

was an imitation of the French

theatre.

Ablesimof

wrote " The Miller," a comedy which was performed twentyseven times in
"

The Boaster,"

Moscow and has " The Originals,"

kept
"

its

place on the stage,

attempted an historical drama in

tations of Voltaire's

The " Vadim

Fatal Carriage," and

of Novgorod."
in

Imithese

Henriade were much

vogue.

Of

the most popular were the " Rnssiad," by Kheraskof, an epic

poem which
merit.

celebrated the capture of Kazan,

and "Vladimir,

or the Conversion of the Russians."

But neither had much

in a light piece of

Bogdanovitch imitated La Fontaine

verse called "

Dushenka," which treated the antique subject of

fables of Gellert,

Psyche.

Khemnitser translated the

in
style.

and com-

posed others

Russian which are remarkable

for the simplicity

and natural grace of the

Khemnitser, like Lessing, looked

upon morals
reflect

as the essential foundation of fables.

his
peculiarities.

His works
prevailing

his
is

thoughts and
is

The

moral

that success

always gained by fearless men, and

is

that a great inheritance

fables are

better than a

good education.
tone.

His

usually melancholy and

affecting in

He

is

the natural predecessor of Kruilof.

In lyric poetry Derzhavin

holds the principal place.

The
its

school of

Lomonosof was
style.

fall-

ing into disrepute, owing to

pompous

Derzhavin's

distinguishing characteristics are indicated by himself

when
to tell

he says that he was the

in a pleasing style, to

first to

praise the merits of Catherine

speak of

God with

simplicity,

and

THE GREAT THEATRE.

17(52-1796.]

CATHERINE

II.:

REFORMS.

219

truth to the Tsar with a smile.

his

His poems usually celebrate

own

time, but he

is

superficial in his brilliancy,

and hence

unsatisfactory.

He

recognizes the dignity of the true man, and

exalts a pure conscience

and

virtue.

Like Horace and Ana-

kreon, he

is

the poet of liberty, peace,

and

love.

He

brought

the

Russian

language to a high

state

of perfection.

His

patriotic odes, "

The Capture

of Ismail," "

The Great Noble,"

satire.

"The

Cascade,"

"My

Idol,"

"To

Fortune," are remarkable

for a certain

sublimity mingled with a shade of

is

The

second part of "Felitsa"

a lively attack on high society, full of

;

malicious allusions to different people of the Court

it

and though

might have cost him dear

a gold snuff-box

in

preceding reigns, the

gift

poem

gained him

and a rich
it

from the Empress,

satirized,

who

took care to send copies of

to all

who were

underlining the passages applied to them.

ligious odes are inferior to those of

Derzhavin's re-

Lomonosof.

Some

are

philosophical,

The

best

is

and directed against the French Encyclopaedists. the one entitled " On the Death of Prince MePerhaps the most famous
in a temple.
is

shtcherski."

the "
in

Ode
a

to

God,"
gold

which the Emperor of China had printed

letters of

and hung up

Derzhavin, having

made

thorough

study of German poetry, was enabled

of metres than his predecessors.
as a versifier inequality,
;

to use a greater variety

He had

considerable merit

his faults

were the

faults of his day,

turgidity,

and inconsistency.
spoiled
poet,

Beautiful and sublime thoughts

rhetoric.

are

often

by

his

extravagant and inflated

Although a

Derzhavin was Minister of Justice.

laborious Novikof, in order that the

The ardent and

new

culture might penetrate to the silent masses concerned with

the smaller trades, and also to the people, took up the " Mos-

cow Gazette," secured for it four thousand subscribers (an enormous number for the time), perfected the Russian typography, created new libraries, and published a series of reviews and magazines for home readings for the vouns: and for workmen, who were almost destitute of literature. Among these were "The Pilgrim's Staff," " The Painter," " The Purse,"

220

HISTORY OF RUSSIA.

[Chap. X.

"The

Ancient Library of Russia," "The Courier of Russian

Antiquities," "

the " Edition of

The Morning Aurora," " The Evening Aurora," Moscow," and " The Worker's Rest." He
societies,

founded several philanthropical

education.

and

that

of

the

Friends of Instruction, and took in hand the cause of national

He

was sent

to

Moscow, and made

first

director of the

precious archives of the foreign department.

The aged Midler

History," by Mankief.

edited the

" National

History of

Russia," by Tatishtchef; and the

Pallas of Berlin,

"Compendium of Russian who was made presi-

Academy of Sciences at only thirty years of age, was commanded to make an observation of the passage of Venus over the sun. He then made his celebrated travels in
dent of the
the Crimea, in Siberia, and on the frontiers of China, and

was given by the Empress an estate in the Taurid. Golikof, pardoned by Catherine on the occasion of the inauguration of Falconet's bronze, vowed at the feet of Peter's statue to raise
an historical monument to the glory of the Russian hero, and
published
in twelve volumes " The Actions of Peter the Great," Prince Shtcherbatof wrote the " History of Russia from the

Earliest Times."

He was w ell
r

educated, careful, and diligent,

but not a
holds

man

of

much

talent or depth.
in

His work, however,

historical
literature.

an

honorable

place

Russian

General Boltin, a

man

of remarkable

gifts,

found great

fault

with the recent history of Old and

New

Russia, written by the

French Leclerc

in

seventeen hundred and eighty-four, but he

also severely criticised the

led to a great dispute

between them.

work of Prince Shtcherbatof, which Mussin -Pushkin discovPoroshin, one of the

ered the unique manuscript of the " Song of Igor." Khrapovitski, Catherine's confidential secretary,

tutors of the

Grand Duke Paul

Nikita Panin, the diplomatist,

the great nobles,

Semen and Alexander

Vorontsof, their sister

Catherine Dashkof, and the old soldier Bolotof, collected or pre-

pared valuable memoirs on the reigns of Elisabeth and Catherine.

The

historian Karamzin,

and the dramatic poet Ozerof,

were as yet only boys.

who

glorified the following reigns,

CHAPTER XL

CATHERINE THE SECOND LAST YEARS.

:

1780 - 1796.

Armed Neutrality Franco-Russian Mediation at Teschen (1779). Second War with TurReunion of the Crimea (1783). (1780). Second key (1787-1792) and War with Sweden (1788- 1790). Thikd Partition: KosPartition of Poland Diet of Grodno. Catherine the Second and the French Revolution. ciuszko. War with Persia.

FRANCO-RUSSIAN MEDIATION AT TESCHEN- ARMED NEUTRALITY. REUNION OP THE CRIMEA.

second part of the reign of Catherine THE characterized by the abandonment of the
the Second
"
is

System of the

North," that
a

is,

of the English and Prussian alliance, and

first

by

marked

reconciliation,

with Austria, and then with

France.

After the death of Nikita Panin,

foreign affairs,
to

who had been

espe-

cially influential in

Count Alexander BezboRussian

official,

rodko was advanced

the head of the diplomatic service.

Little

Bezborodko was the son of a

and was

early distinguished for his rare

endowments and

his extraor-

dinary memory, which attracted the attention of Field-Marshal

Rumiantsof,

who

introduced him to the Empress.

in the treaty of
first

He

took

an important part
office of
tire

Kairadji, and received the

Catherine's

secretary.

He

soon gained her en-

confidence by his eloquence and brilliancy, and assisted

her in the composition of ninny important ordinances.

eign relations, and was immediately

In

seventeen hundred and eighty he presented a memorial on for-

made

member

of that

222

HISTORY OF RUSSIA.
About

[Chap. XI.

College of which he soon became the head.

this

same

time the influence of Potemkin became

all-powerful.

The

French ambassadors, the Marquis de Juigne, Bouree de Corberon, the Marquis de Verac, and above all the Cointe de
Segur,

who

represented France from seventeen hundred and

until

eighty-five

seventeen
in

hundred and eighty-nine, were

again taken into favor

Russia.

In seventeen hundred and seventy-seven, Maximilian-Joseph,

the Flector of Bavaria, being dead, his succession occasioned a
conflict

between the house of Austria and Frederic the Second.

In order to stop this war, which had already begun in Bohe-

mia, the Courts of France and Russia agreed to offer their

mediation, and in seventeen hundred and seventy-nine assembled a Congress

at

Teschen, in
Breteuil,

which Louis the Sixteenth

and Catherine the Second by Prince Repnin. Peace was signed on the tenth of May. Bavaria passed to the Elector Palatine, and Austria acquired only some districts upon the Danube, the Inn, and the Salza.
In seventeen hundred and eighty, during the American War, the Empress, moved to indignation by the wrongs committed by the English Admiralty against foreign merchantmen, joined with Sweden, Denmark, Prussia, Austria, and Portugal to proclaim an armed neutrality. The celebrated act embodied the principles of a new maritime law, agreeing

was represented by M.

with the French code of seventeen hundred and seventy-eight.

It

was

settled

that neutral ships could

freely navigate the

coasts of the nations

which were
in

at

war; that the goods be-

longing to the subjects of the belligerent powers should be

safe in neutral vessels, except

chandise

that " contraband

;

the case of contraband mergoods " included only arms and

munition

that

port should

be considered in a state of

blockade only when the blockade was effectual,

the vessels attacking
it

that

is, it

when
dan-

should be so near as to render

gerous to pass out

as a rule in trials

and lastly that these principles should serve

legality of captures.

and judgments on the

1780-1796.]

CATHERINE

II:

LAST YEARS.
at all

223

These principles were opposed

points to those which

the English Admiralty wished to see prevail.

The

latter

held
it is

the theory that the blockade exists from the

moment

that

declared by an act of the Admiralty, and considered as contraband even grain, and all that could be, however indirectly,
of use to the belligerents.

France, which had at

to
its

first

laid

down

these

principles,

and
in

which the armed neutrality

struggle with Great Britain,
allies,

brought a moral support

adhered
Sicilies,

to this

declaration.

Its

Spain and the

Two

followed the example.

Holland even began a war

treaty

with England to maintain the rights of the neutral powers.

The Crimea had been declared independent by the

of Kairnadji
;

and since seventeen hundred and seventy-four

anarchy had been the normal state of the peninsula.

Sultan, deprived by this treaty of his temporal

The

sovereignty,

continued, as successor of the Khalifs, to claim the religious

supremacy.

The Tatar
in turn

nobles,

abandoned

to themselves,

were

divided into two factions, the Russian party and the Turkish
party,

which

made and

then deposed a

Khan

of the

Crimea.

Nearly

thirty-five

thousand

Christians,

Greeks,

Armenians, and Catholics, disturbed by these

sanctuary of the Assumption, which was
rock,

civil discords,

quitted the ravine of Tchufut-Kale and the wonder-working

dug out

of the hard

and emigrated

in a

body

to the territory of Russia.

In

seventeen

hundred and

seventy-five

the

Khan

Sahib-Girei,

who was devoted

Devlet-Girei.

to Russia, in

was overthrown and replaced by

He

his

turn was dethroned

by Catherine,
of

and Shahin-Girei,

whom

Catherine
in

made
his

a captain
stead, but,

the
his

Preobrazhenski regiment, reigned

by

attempts at European reforms, caused a general revolt.

hin-Girei's
volt,

Sha-

own
it

brothers put themselves at the head of the reto take refuse at TaGranroQ-.

and he was obliged

;

Russia

interfered

proclaimed

peninsula, which

the union of the empire and the had been since the thirteenth century the

home

of banditti, and

whose ravines had so

often sent forth

224

HISTORY OF RUSSIA-

[Chap. XI.

Tatar squadrons to bring

Catherine

finished

the

fire and flame to Moscow. Thus work of the conqueror of Kazan, of

Astrakhan, and of Siberia, bv the extinction of the

doni that recalled the Mongol yoke.

last

king-

The two

military States which formerly disputed the steppes

of the South, the Tatar khanate and the equally warlike re-

public of the
time.

Zaporoshtsui, succumbed almost at the same

these

In the face of the advent of civilization

to total ruin.

old

enemies were alike condemned

Representatives

of the ancient anarchy, children of the desert and the steppe,

knights of pillage and of prey, they constituted a dangerous

anachronism and an intolerable anomaly on the frontier of a

prosperous Russia.
tion of the Crimea,

The Porte

protested against the annexa;

and threatened a rupture

but France,

which had formerly excited the war,

matters.

tried this time to

smooth

Catherine the Second recognized the good

offices of

the

ambassador Saint-Priest, and addressed her thanks to

Louis the Sixteenth.

of the

The Sultan acknowledged the

cession

Crimea and of the Kuban by the Treaty of ConstantiCatherine gave

in

nople in seventeen hundred and eighty-three.

great

rewards to those who had had a share

this

bringing

about

treaty.

Potemkin was made general field-marshal

thousand rubles.

and

president of the college of war, and received a pres-

ent of one hundred

Bezborodko received
thousand
serfs

the order of Saint

Andrew and
rubles.

a gift of three

and
gifts.

forty

thousand

And

the

Austrian internuncio

was presented with twenty thousand rubles and other valuable

In seventeen hundred and eighty-four the Grand

Duke Paul

and
tion

his wife,

under the names of the Count and Countess du

in the

Xord, made a tour

in

West, and received a

of the

brilliant recep-

Paris.

In seventeen hundred and eighty-seven

the

Comte de Segur, taking advantage

he stood with Potemkin, and the

good terms on which

hasten the

latter's desire to

development of Odessa, by trading with the French ports on

780-1796.]

CATHERINE

II.

LAS1 YEARS.

225

the Mediterranean, concluded a treaty of commerce, an important

negotiation

in

which

all

his

predecessors had hitherto

failed.

SECOND

WAR WITH TURKEY AND WAR WITH

SWEDEN.
whom
Catherine had gained over to her ambitious

All this time Russia maintained a close alliance with Joseph the Second,

projects in the East.

The Cabinet

of Saint Petersburg pro-

posed to that of Vienna a plan

for the

dismemberment

of

Turkey.
trian,

"

There ought to exist between the Russian, Aus-

and Turkish monarchies an intermediate State, forever independent of each, which, under the name of Dacia, should comprehend Moldavia, Valakhia, and Bessarabia, and have a
Russia Greek Church. is to acquire Otchakof and the seaboard between the Bug and the Dnieper, besides one or two isles in the Archipelago.
sovereign
to the

who should belong

Austria
the

is

to

annex the Turkish provinces on

its frontiers.

If

crowned with such success that the Turks are expelled from Constantinople, the Greek Empire is to be reestablished in complete independence, and the throne is to be filled by the grandson of the Empress, the Grand Duke Kon-

war

is

stantin Pavlovitch,

who
the

is

to

renounce

all

claims to the throne

of Russia, so that

two kingdoms may never be united under the same sceptre." Joseph the Second accepted these

propositions, but further stipulated that besides Servia, Bosnia,

and the Herzegovina, the Slav provinces of the Turkish Empire,

he should have the Venetian possessions in Dalmatia.

to receive

Venice was
Cyprus.
of

in

exchange the Morea, Candia, and

England, France, and Spain might share the spoils

Such was the celebrated scheme of partition, known under the name of the " Greek project," which would have fulfilled all the wishes of Voltaire, who had died five
Turkey.
years previously.

The
VOL.

attitude of Russia
II.

became each day more threatening

15

2.26

HISTORY OF RUSSIA.
The second son
of Konstantin,

[Chap. XI.

to the Porte.
nificant

of Paul the First bore the sig-

name

and

had been given a Greek

nurse.

The

Taurid, annexed by Catherine the Second,

who
act,

had alleged the security of the empire as the reason of her

was becoming,
Turks.

in

the

hands of Potemkin, a menace

;

to

the

Already Kherson had a formidable arsenal

;

Sevasto-

pol was being built

Sea,

there was a Russian fleet on the Black

#

and

in

two days

it

might

cast

anchor under the walls

of the Seraglio.

Catherine's agents continued to agitate in the

Rumanian, Slav, and Greek provinces, and even in Egypt; she was preparing to incorporate the Caucasus, and had taken
the Tsar of Georgia under her protection.

journey made by the

Empress

in

seventeen

The triumphal hundred and

of Poland

eighty-seven to the governments of the South and the newly

conquered provinces

her interviews with the

;

King

and Joseph the Second

the

military

equipment arrayed by
further
Avell

Potemkin, prince of the Taurid; the arches with the famous

Greek

inscription, "

The
its

Way
former

to

Byzantium,"
France,

still

alarmed and

irritated

the

Porte.

which

too

knew

the weakness of
;

ally, tried

to use a restrain-

ing influence

but England, and even Prussia, acted in the

contrary way, in order to spite Russia.

Sweden, which the

promised
to

French ambassador also

the Sublime Porte.

tried

to moderate,

aid

On

the twenty-sixth of July, seventeen hundred and eighty-

seven, Bulgakof, the Russian envoy, received the ultimatum of

Turkey.

It

demanded

the extradition of Maurokordato, hos-

podar of Moldavia,

who had

taken refuge in Russia

the recall

of the Russian consuls of Iassy, Bukarest, and Alexandria, on the ground that they were disturbing the peace; the abandon-

ment
all

of the protectorate over Irakli the Second, Tsar of Geor-

gia, the vassal of the

Sultan

the right of the Turks to inspect

Russian vessels navigating the Straits; and the admission

of Turkish consuls or commissaries into the ports of the Russian territory.

Bulgakof refused

to agree to these conditions.

1780 - 1796.]

CATHERINE

II.

LAST YEARS.

227

He was

then confined in the Seven Towers, and on the six-

teenth of August the Porte declared war.

Russia was taken by surprise.

Potemkin had not finished

his preparations, and the fleet at Sevastopol had suffered severely from a recent tempest. " The child of fortune began to

despair
nate."

when he saw
His
;

that he

was beginning

to

be unfortu-

letters to

Catherine show

how

deeply he was dis-

and he even spoke of evacuating the Crimea. The Empress shows in her replies a masculine and dauntless soul she managed to prove to her favorite that the evacuation of the Peninsula would be the certain ruin of the great port of Sevastopol and the infant fleet which had been created at such cost. Without waiting for the enemy, it was necessary to assume the
couraged
offensive,
to

and march on Otchakof or Bender. " I implore you " the brave soul can take courage and reflect," she writes
;

repair even a disaster."

But Catherine had more than one enemy to cope with. While Turkey menaced her on the south, Prussia was scheming to force Poland to cede Dantzig and Thorn, and to oblige the two other co-partitioners to give up Gallicia. Finally Gustavus the Third declared his designs, abruptly laid claim to South Finland, demanded that he should be allowed to mediate between Russia and Turkey, and, without awaiting a reply to his ultimatum, laid siege to Nyslot and Frederikshamn.
If he

had acted promptly, instead of wasting the ardor of

defended

his

troops against the fortresses, he

might have conquered Livonia,

then

by only two regiments, or surprised Saint Petersburg, which was deprived of its troops. Although the
Swedish cannon could be heard
in

roar of the

the Winter

Palace, Catherine

showed the courage

that she enjoined on

Potemkin.

Nevertheless, horses were

kept

in

readiness to

transport the Court to

Moscow
for its

if

worse came to worst.

She

refused to desert her capital, and assembled in a few days

twelve thousand

men

defence.
to

She sent

to

Potemkin

for re-inforcements

which he refused

grant, saying that he

228

HISTORY OF RUSSIA.

[Chap. XI.

himself needed them more, and that the Swedish war was an
old

woman's Avar, which required only a few troops. The Swedish Meet was arrested on its way by the indecisive batof Ilogland,

tle

which took place July seventeen, seventeen

hundred and eighty-eight.

severely than the Swedish
out,
;

The Russian

fleet

suffered

more
it

but the Swedish ammunition gave

and had the

battle been

renewed the following day,

would have been completely disastrous to the Swedes. The Russians lost their able commander, Admiral Greig, who had served with such honor in the naval engagement with the
Turks.
king,

revolt

broke out even in the camp of the Swedish

his
officers of

who was accused by

the

violating his

own

constitution

by declaring war without consulting the senate.

Third was obliged to return
to

Gustavus

Stockholm,

where he punished the conspirators, and by a new coup-d'etat

more monarchical character. A diversion of the Danes in Sweden forbade his assuming the offensive, but in seventeen hundred and eighty-nine he got rid of them through the threatened intervention of England and Prussia, and took up arms against
obliged the assembly to give to the constitution a
still

Russia

his fleet, however, suffered considerable loss.

Though
thousand

he gained the naval battle of Svenska-Sund, where he captured thirty vessels, six

hundred cannon, and

six

men, on the ninth of July, seventeen hundred and ninety, he

found himself unable
to

pursue his advantage, which was comseas.

promised by a second battle on the same

prince.
sis

The

affairs

of France gave another direction to the ideas of this strange

He

hastened to sign the Peace of Verelii, on the bapassed from open hostilities

of statu quo ante bellum, and

to propositions of
lution.

an alliance with Russia against the Revo-

In the South, Catherine had ready, in seventeen hundred and eighty-eight, an army of eighteen thousand men to protect
the

Caucasus, eighty thousand

to

under Potemkin

to

capture

Otchakof and

defend the Crimea, and thirty-seven thousand

1780-1796.]

CATHERINE

II.:

LAST YEAES.

229

under Rumiantsof to operate on the Dniester and in Moldavia while two hundred thousand Austrians under Joseph the Second, who had declared war against Abdul- Hamid on the
;

ninth of February, threatened the line of the

the Save.
forced to

Danube and
war.

The Emperor was unfortunate

fall

in this

He was

In the fall, feeling the back beyond the Save. where the people had been growing discontent of Hungary, irritated by his religious innovations and the nobles by en-

croachments on their privileges, he resigned his command to Two little fortresses were captured, but the aged Laudon.

army before Belgrad operated with such stupidity that the Grand Vizier penetrated into Hungary as far as Temesvar, where the Emperor met them with forty thousand The Austrian left wing, amounting men and was defeated.
the main
to eighteen

thousand men under the Prince of Koburg, being

thirteen thousand

joined by

Russians under Soltuikof, had

better success,

tured Khotin, the key of Moldavia. vorof

and on the seventeenth of September capDuring this time Su-

defended
in

Kinburn

against

superior

forces,

and was

wounded
kof.

a sortie.

Potemkin, with his large army, was

wasting his time and opportunity, instead of attacking Otcha-

Had

he followed Suvorof's advice or appointed him to

this

lead the

Russians,

important place could easily have

been taken in the spring.

the advice of others.
city with half the

But Potemkin saw

fleet

fit

to despise

pasha came
;

to the assistance of the

Turkish

but

Russians,

who were commanded by

in a naval battle with the the " so-called " Prince of

Nassau-Siegen and Rear-Admiral John Paul Jones, he was

defeated, with a loss of three thousand five

hundred men.

In

trying to escape to his fleet in the Black Sea his remaining

vessels

were almost annihilated by a battery placed by Suvo-

While the Russian fleet was thus victorious, Potemkin began his work of beleaguering the city, threw up a few redoubts at a considerable distance from the walls, and waited for the Turks to be starved out but the Russians
rof at Kinburn.
;

230
suffered
far

HISTORY OF RUSSIA.
more
severely.

[Chap.

XL
had

The summer and

clad.

the

fall

passed, and the bitter winter was at hand.

There was no

fire-

wood, and the soldiers were scantily

On
for

the sixteenth of

December
ation,

there

was only bread enough

to a decision

one day.

Potemsitu-

kin, therefore,

brought

by the necessity of the

commanded an

assault to be made.

On

the seventeenth,

the morning of Saint Nicholas's day, the attack was begun.

In order to give the

men

animation, they were furnished with

brandy seasoned with Spanish pepper.

ment,

Pour columns under

city itself.

Prince Repnin stormed the west side of the great intrench-

two attacked the

east side

and the
it

The

fearful cross-fire of the

enemy, though

nearly destroyed one

column of two thousand men, did not dismay the desperate Russians. In a few hours, after a fearful struggle, they mastered the city,

breaches in

making an entrance, some by the walls, some by crossing the

fortifications

clambering over the lower

of the

some by frozen river and on that side. The loss

ladders,

more.

Turks was eight thousand, and the Russians lost even Among them were one hundred and seventy officers.

In the massacre that followed,

men and women were

The
stones.

butch-

ered with the most horrible cruelty.

treasure captured

was enormous, gold,

silver,

and precious

Lieutenant

press,

to carry the news of the victory to the Emand accomplished the distance, more than two thousand Potemkin was rewarded versts, in the short space of nine days.

Bauer undertook

with the great band of the Order of George, and a sword set

with diamonds and bearing the inscription, " For Bravery."

But according
Russians
still

to the

common

belief

he was
this

distinguished

rather for the opposite quality.

lost sixty

During

campaign the

more

severely.

thousand men, while the Austrians suffered Catherine the Second, who had been in

previous

years accustomed to see

enemy's camp, now had the opportunity

ess of

French volunteers in the to applaud the prowBombcllcs,

the Baron dc

Damas and Count de

standard.

who

fought under her

own

1780-1796.]

CATHERINE

II.:

LAST YEARS.

231

Iii

seventeen hundred and eighty-nine Selim the Third, a

of great character, spirit,

man
in

and knowledge, became Sultan

finally

at Constantinople,

and Potemkin's intrigues

succeeded

getting

this

Count Rumiantsof recalled. The first action of campaign took place on the twenty-seventh of April, and

resulted in a victory for the Russians.

On

the thirty-first of

July the Turks, thirty thousand strong, endeavored to attack

Suvorof, with wonderful rapidity, Prince of Koburg. marched with seven thousand of his troops through narrow passes over rough mountains, and in thirty-six hours joined his
the

men

with those of the Prince,

who was

at

Fokshani, thirty-six
flags,

miles away.

The Turks

lost ten

cannon, sixteen

and

their

whole camp.

Six weeks later the Austrians were again threat-

ened by an overwhelming Turkish force amounting to one hundred thousand men. Again Suvorof saved the Prince of Kobnrg. At the battle of the Ruimnik, near Martinestie, on September twenty-second, the victory was won by twenty-five thousand Christians. The Grand Vizier, Kntchnk-Hassan, did
Suvorof earned by this victory surname of Ruimnikski, and was made a count of the Roman and Russian empires, and the Prince of Koburg was appointed field-marshal. Each of the generals received also a sword adorned with precious stones valued at sixty thousand
the
rubles.

not long survive this defeat.

On

the west
;

Laudon took

Belgracl in October,

and

conquered Servia

while on the east Potemkin, on the six-

teenth of November, successfully besieged Bender and sub-

dued Bessarabia.
press.

in

Potemkin was again rewarded by the EmShe presented him with one hundred thousand rubles gold, and a laurel wreath of emeralds and diamonds worth

fifty thousand rubles. Freed from the war with Sweden, Catherine the Second carried on hostilities with the Turks with greater vigor in

one hundred and

seventeen hundred and ninety.

of the

Ismail, on the northern side

its

Danube, was formidable from

position,

fended besides by forty thousand men.

and was deKutuzof had aban-

232
doned
all

HISTORY OF RUSSIA.
hope of taking
to
it,

[Chap. XI.

and Potemkin entreated the impetSnvorof, however, carried

it

uous Suvorof
assault, with

be prudent.

a loss of ten

thousand
side.

men on

the Russian

by and

thirty thousand on the

Turkish

" Never," he writes to

Ismail,

Potemkin, " was a

exploits were

fortress stronger than

!

and never

But Ismail is taken." His sung by Derzhavin. In seventeen hundred and ninety Joseph the Second died and his successor, Leopold the Second, signed a peace at Sistova, in

was a defence more desperate

August, seventeen hundred and ninety-one, which gave

the old
still

him only
of

town of Orsova and the

Kilia

territory of the

Unna.
fall

Catherine

continued the war for some months.

The

Akkerman and

made her

mistress of the mouths of the

Danube.

Repnin, with forty thousand men, defeated the Grand

Vizier with one hundred thousand at Matchin, while Ushakof

dispersed the Turkish

off the

fleet

Grand

Vizier's

and surrounded Varna, so as to cut communications with Constantinople,

implored peace
affairs of
;

and the Sultan,

in alarm,

and, as Catherine's

attention was claimed by the

France and Poland, she

was not disinclined. By the separate Peace of Iassy, which was signed in January, seventeen hundred and ninety-two. she
retained only Otchakof and the seaboard

between the Bug

and the Dniester, and stipulated

the

for

guarantees in favor of

Danubian

Principalities.

This war was more severe than

the preceding one had been, and the success

more disputed.
in the struggle

The

Turks, thinking themselves on the eve of being driven

into Asia,

of seventeen

managed to make a better fight than hundred and sixty-seven.

SECOND PARTITION OP POLAND: DIET OP GRODNO.

THIRD PARTITION
The
years between seventeen
:

KOSCIUSZKO.
hundred and seventy-three
for Poland,

and seventeen hundred and ninety-one had been,

years of valiant efforts and needful reforms.

Tvzenhaus had
universities

founded a school of medicine

in

Warsaw, the old

2780-1796.]
of Vilna and

CATHEEINE

II.:

LAST YEAKS.
a

233

Cracow had been reorganized, and

logic.

number
Stanislas

of secondary schools created, for which the French philoso-

pher Condillac had compiled a manual of

Poniatovski, the " dear son " of

correspondent

of

Voltaire, the

friend,

the

Madame

Italian artists to visit

had induced French and National historians and the country.

Geoffrin,
last years

poets

adorned with their talents the

of indepen-

It was a real Polish renaissance, under the salutary dence. " Progress was influence of the universal French genius. " no more few years was seen of in a rapid," says Lelevel
;

those sombre superstitious practices, of that hideous bigotry,

which had stained with blood the piety of the faithful charthey spoke with a latanism could no longer seduce them
; ;

smile of the ancient faith in sorcery

the
;

phenomena
gave

of nature
place to

were explained
fraternity

in a reasonable

way

hatred

among

the worshippers at different shrines."

for centuries

The
edu-

characters of the people, degraded

cation,
at the

by a

fatal

became elevated by the

rational instruction given

them

new

schools.

generation of

men grew up

strangers to

the fanaticism and corruption of the preceding age, possessed

with a passion for liberty and the country, whose crowning

glory they were to be.
plished,

To give an idea of the work accomcompare the Zamoi'skis, the Kosciuszkos, the Niemtsevitches, and the Dombrovskis with the men of the first partition. Poland wished to live, and made a last
we have only
to
effort for its regeneration.
It

was necessary

first

to

reform the hateful and anarchic

constitution,

which had been perfidiously guaranteed by the

foreign powers,

prey of

its

enemies.

and had made Poland the laughing-stock and In seventeen hundred and eighty-eight

the Diet of

Warsaw established a committee for this purpose, raised the number of the army to sixty thousand men, and imposed new taxes. Circumstances seemed favorable to the
boldest measures
;

if

France,

occupied with

its

revolution,

could not come to the aid of Poland, England appeared openly

234
hostile to Russia
;

HISTORY OF RUSSIA.

[Chap.

XL

Turkey and Sweden declared war against

Catherine,
Poles,

while Prussia was seeking the friendship of the

and had persuaded Poniatovski to despise the Russian guarantee, and negotiated a treaty of alliance offensive and
defensive.

The Diet

of seventeen

hundred and ninety-one

was formed

into a confederation, and, deciding this time

by a
de-

majority, undertook the reform

of the constitution.

It

clared the throne hereditary,

ony was

heirs to Poniatovski legal anarchy

it

and nominated the house of Saxabolished the liberum veto, which

it

and organized venality;

senate,

shared the legis-

lative

power between the king, the

;

and the Chamber

Chambers, and
in-

of Nuncios
sisted

it

centred the executive power in the king, as-

by

six

ministers, responsible to the

him with the command of the armies and the appointment of the officials. The towns obtained the ricrht of electing their judges, and of sending deputies to the Diet. None dared
vested

touch the rights of nobles over their peasants, for the nobles

were then the fighting part of the nation, the "legal country "
;

and

it

was owing,

in

fact, to

their patriotism that the

revolution was accomplished.

All that the Diet conld do

was

to sanction beforehand individual

compacts made between the

Such serfs, to the advantage of the latter. was the memorable constitution of the third of May, seventeen hundred and ninety-one. A similar transformation which took place in Sweden at the royal conp-d'etat of seventeen hundred and seventy-two had saved the monarchy of the would the parliamentary coupVasas from dismemberment, Would d'etat of seventeen hundred ninety-one save Poland? the Northern courts, which thought it a crime on the part of the French liberals to weaken, by the constitution of the same
owners and their

year, the

powers of the Bourbon kings, permit the Polish

the essential prerogatives

patriots to restore to their sovereign

of royalty, the force necessary to

subdue anarchy within, and

?

cause the nation to be respected without

Catherine the Second feared to protest as long as she had

1780-1796.]

CATHERINE

II.

LAST YEARS.

235

the Turkish war on her hands

but when the Peace of Iassy

Petersburg a deputation of

Avas signed, she received at Saint

Polish malcontents,
veto,

who were

disposed to cling to the liberum

Amongst
ski,

and were alarmed at the promises made to the peasants. these unworthy citizens we may remark Felix Pototthe hetman Branitski, Rzhevutski, and the two brothers
Catherine the Second authorized them to form

Kazakovski.

the Confederation of Targovitsa.

eighteenth of May, seventeen

In her manifesto

of

the

hundred and ninety-two, she

reminded men that Russia had guaranteed the Polish constitution, and signalized the reformers of the third of May as
accomplices
of

the

Jacobins.

Enlightened

Russians were

Semen Vorontsof, ambassador

festo

indignant at the perfidious language used by their ministers. in London, writes, " The mani-

had no right

to

enter into ridiculous eulogies on the

ancient form of government, under which the Republic has

flourished and prospered for so
air of stupidity, if
it is

many

centuries.

That has an
conthe

said in

good

faith, or of insulting

tempt,

if

they believe, like the rest of the world, that

it is

most absurd and detestable of all governments." The epithet " Jacobin " was, besides, singularly inapplicable to the Poles,

who wished

to strengthen the royal

power.

At the request
Ukraina.

of the Confederates of Targovitsa, eighty

thousand Russians and twenty thousand Cossacks entered the

Poniatovski

turned to Prussia, and recalled

the

promises of help which had been given.

Frederic William

the Second replied that he had not been consulted about the

change of the constitution, and that he considered himself

absolved from
all

engagements.
Austria

He w as
r

already arranging

with Russia a -second treaty of partition, from which Austria

was

to

be excluded.
it

would have

to content itself

might wrest from revolutionary France. Russia likewise promised to help it to acquire Bavaria, in exchange for the Low Countries. The Poles, deserted by all,
with any provinces
tried in vain
to

resist

the Russian invasion.

Their army of

236

HISTORY OF RUSSIA.

[Chap.

XL

Lithuania retreated without fighting, while the Polish army,

properly so-called, gave battle at Zielentse, under Prince Iosiph

Poniatovski

and

at

Dubienka, on the Bug, under Thaddeus

Kosciuzko, or Kostsiushko.

Then King

Stanislas

pronounced

himself ready to accede to the Confederation of Targovitsa,

thus disavowing his glorious work of the third of May.

The

reformers Ignati Pototski, Kolontai, and Malakhovski had to

withdraw, and their places

in the council of the

king were

taken by Confederates of Targovitsa,

stitution.

who

abolished the con-

The liberum
patriots,

veto

was re-established.
in

The Polish
partition,

remaining

ignorance of the treaty of

were unconscious of half their misfortunes.

his manifesto that the troubles of

The

King

of Prussia in his turn crossed the western frontier, anin

nouncing

Poland com-*

promised the safety of his

infested

own

States, that

Dantzig had sent

corn to the French revolutionaries, and that Great Poland was

whose intrigues were rendered doubly dangerous by the continuation of the war with. Prance. The King of Prussia affected to see Jacobins whenever it was The share which each of the powers his interest to find them. Russia was to seize should have was marked out in advance.

by Jacobin

clubs,

the eastern provinces with a population of three millions, as far

as a line

drawn from the

eastern frontier of Kurland, which,

passing Pinsk, ended in Gallicia, and included Borisof, Minsk,

Slutsk, Volhynia, Podolia, and Little Russia.

Prussia would

take the long-coveted cities of Thorn and Dantzig, as well as

Great Poland, Posnania, Gniezen, Kalish, and Tehenstokhovo.

If Russia
still

only annexed Russian or Lithuanian territory,

Prussia for the second time cut Poland to the quick, and

another million and a half of Slavs passed under the yoke of

the Germans.
It

was not enough

to despoil Poland,

now reduced
it

to

territory less extensive than that

which was now taken possesshould consent to

sion of

by

Puissia

the spoliation,

it

was necessary that

it

that

should legalize the partition.

diet

1780-1796.]

CATHERINE
at

II.:

LAST YEARS.

237

Grodno, under the pressure of the Russian pressure, enforced by pecuniary corrupsame bayonets. This tion, had been exercised in the elections, and the King was in some sense dragged to Grodno to preside over the ruin

was convoked

of his country.

Sivers, Catherine's ambassador, displayed all

the resources of an unscrupulous diplomacy which had seduction, intimidation,

and violence at

its

service.

In spite of the he gained

support of bought deputies and Targovitsan

traitors,

nothing for a long time.

At

last

the Diet, in the deceitful

hope of dividing
born with regard

its

enemies, consented that the treaty of ces-

sion to Russia should be ratified, but

to

showed

itself

more stub-

Prussia.

Sivers was forced to surround

the Hall of Session by two battalions of grenadiers, point four

pieces of cannon,

and

install

General Rautenfels in a chair

beside the King.

to

extract a

Twenty days passed without his being able word of assent from the defenceless assembly.
Catherine
a hated yoke,

The

Poles hated the Prussians above everything.

might have delivered Great Poland from

united
all

the

kingdom under her

authority,

and which would

have been almost gratefully accepted.

Sivers
felt

Like Semen Vorontsof,

the enormous fault that was committed by aggran-

dizing Prussia at the expense of a Slav country.

his instructions

Unhappily

were

positive.

In order to triumph over this

stubbornness he had four deputies carried off by his dragoons,

and

closely

blockaded the assembly in the

hall of delibera-

tions.

The day

of September twenty-third, seventeen

hun-

dred and ninety-three, and the following night, were occupied

bv a "
in the

silent session," while the

Kins: sat on his throne,

the deputies on their benches, gloomy and

dumb.

and At three
;

morning Rautenfels left to fetch his grenadiers then the Marshal of the Diet, Bielinski, put the question. Ankiecompromise which would give

vitch proposed to the nuncios a

satisfaction to Prussia, while leaving to a "

terity " the task of raising

more happy posBielinski asked

up the country.
if

three times, without taking breath,

the Diet authorized the

238

HISTORY OF RUSSIA.

[Chap.

XL

delegate to sign the treaty.

No

one replied

then a voice
to
left

was heard declaring the silence to be equivalent It was four o'clock in the morning, the nuncios

consent.

the hall

in

profound

grief,

with streaming eyes.

of

Diet concluded with Russia a treaty of alliance, or rather a compact of slavery, by

sixteenth

On

the

October the

which Catherine the Second guaranteed

republic"; that
is,

" the

liberty of the

all

the

abuses of the old constitution.

the provinces ceded

The
the

Polish troops

who were encamped on

to the

Empress received orders to swear allegiance to her; army belonging to the republic was to be reduced to only
thousand men.
its

fifteen

By

fanaticism and electoral corruption Poland had mer-

ited its misfortunes in seventeen

hundred and seventy-two

of

it

did not merit those of seventeen ninety-three.

History will

not forget the generous

efforts

the Tchartoruiski, of the

greater part of the nobility, and of the patriotic "third estate,"

for the reform of the country.

The

citizens of the
at

large towns, inspired

by French

ideas,

were indignant

The army,
with
fury

still

new attempt against their country. twenty-rive thousand men strong, had received
this

the

order

to

disband.

Part

of

the

noblemen
fear of

shared

these

sentiments, while the others, through

new
rule.

taxes or social

reforms, resigned themselves to foreign

The country proper remained

apathetic and indifferent.

Poland was cruelly expiating the harsh servitude that her pospolit, in the full

current of eighteenth-century civilization, had

allowed to weigh on the rural classes.

in

George Forster writes

seventeen

hundred and ninety-one, " The Polish nobles

extinguished
in
is

alone in Europe have pushed ignorance and barbarism so far

that they have almost
their serfs the last lin-

gering sparks of thought."

This

one of the extenuating

circumstances invoked by Russian

or

German

historians to

excuse the dismemberment; the

lot of the

peasants was not to

to

grow worse under Russian domination, and was

under German
rule.

improve

1780-1796.]

CATHERINE

II.:

LAST YEARS.

239

The Polish patriots had, however, placed all their hopes on Thaddeus Kosciuszko, the hero of Dubienka. lie was born in seventeen hundred and fifty-two, and admitted in seventeen
hundred and sixty-four to the military school, founded by the Tchartorniski, where he had distinguished himself by unceasing labor.

In Poland he received hard lessons in equality

he

saw
ski,

his father assassinated

himself had been put to

by exasperated peasants, and he shame by the powerful noble Sosnovdared

whose daughter

he, a simple portionless gentleman,

to ask in marriage.

He

fought in the American War, and returned invested

After the

with the republican decoration of the Cincinnati.

second partition he quitted

Warsaw and

retired into Saxony,

where he found the men of the third of May,

all

Malakhovski,
and

Ignati Pototski, the ex-Chancellor Kolontai, Niemtsevitch,

of Poland that was honorably devoted to liberty.

He was
in

then sent into France, and received promises of help from the

Committee of Public Dresden to organize

disbanded soldiers
spirators,

Safety,
in

and now he was working

Poland a vast conspiracy.

He was

soon able to reckon thousands of nobles, priests, citizens, and

;

but in spite of the number of the con-

General Igelstrom,

who commanded

in

Warsaw

for

Catherine the Second, failed to seize the principal threads of

the plot.

The order
to

to

disband

the

army hastened

the explosion.

Madalinski refused to allow the brigade that he commanded be disarmed, crossed the Bug, threw himself on the Prusprovinces,
this

sian

and then
the

fell

back on Krakof.
in

At

his ap-

proach

city,

second

Poland, the capital of the

ancient kings, rose and expelled the Russian garrison.

Kos-

ciuszko hastened to the scene of action, and put forth the "act
of insurrection," in which the hateful conduct of the co-partitioners

was branded, and the population called to arms. Five thousand scythes were made for the peasants, the voluntary
patriots

offerings of

were collected, and those of obstinate

240

HISTORY OF RUSSIA.
force.

[Chap. XJ.

and lukewarm people were extracted by

Igelstrom,

who

was very uneasy in Warsaw, detached, nevertheless, Tormasof Deserted by Denisof, Tormasof and Denisof against Krakof came up near Ratslavitsa with Kosciuszko and Madalinski, the

whose troops -four thousand men, one half of was almost equal to his own. The whom were peasants cavalry of the nobles gave way at the first shock, and fled, announcing everywhere that Kosciuszko was defeated and capof

number

tured

but the steadiness of the peasants preserved the Polish

army, and twelve guns were taken from the Russians.

punish the cowardice of the cavalry
off the dress of the
officers,

To

the dictator took

gentleman and assumed that of a peasant.

The news

of this success soon reached

Warsaw, and the

representation of the " Krakovians," which seemed an allusion

to the events in Gallicia,
still

further increased the excitement.

Igelstrom had posted his regiments so injudiciously that their

communication could
in the

easily be cut off

by the Polish regiments

town.

The

arsenal had not yet been delivered to the

Russians, and remained in the hands of the patriots.

On

the seventeenth of April, at three o'clock in the morn-

ing, the tocsin

sounded

in all the churches,

and the insur-

rection broke out.

The

people, excited
fell

by the shoemaker
everywhere on the

Kilinski and the merchant Kapostas,

isolated

detachments of Russians.

Igelstrom found himself

blockaded in his palace, unable to communicate with the scattered regiments, and assailed at once by the citizens and the

Polish troops.
difficulty,

On the eighteenth he left the town with great abandoning twelve cannons, four thousand killed
prisoners.

and wounded, and two thousand

of Lithuania, followed the

Vilna, capital

example of Warsaw, and expelled

installed
It itself at

General Arson ief.

provisional

government

Warsaw, and

sent a courier to Kosciuszko.

third of

was composed of men of the

May, amongst

whom

Ignati Pototski represented the

moderate and Kilinski the extreme party.

King

Stanislas

1780-1796.]

CATHERINE

II.:

LAST YEARS.

241

remained
taking no

in his palace, treated

with respect but watched, and

active part in public affairs, of

which he was kept

informed only by the courtesy of the government.

To sum

up, the revolution of the seventeenth of April, seventeen hun-

dred and ninety-four, had a national and monarchic character, like the Constitution of the third of May, seventeen hundred

and ninety-one.
following
all

It

sought the support of France, without

the advice of the Convention.

special tribunal

gave some satisfaction to the public conscience by seeking out

the wretches

who had

betrayed their country, and whose con-

by the papers seized Ankievitch, the hetmans Zabiello at the Russian embassy. and Ozarovski, and Kazakovski, bishop of Livonia, were hung the brother of the latter, Kazakovski, hetman of Lithuania, had
nection with foreigners had been proved
;

been punished

at Vilna.

In spite of the agitation caused by Kolontai and the democrats,

Kosciuszko dared not

settle the question

about the peas-

ants,

and

his

manifesto of the seventh of May, seventeen

in force.

hundred and ninety-four, was not put

rural masses, brutalized
tried to

He
;

feared to

risk the alienation of the military class, without gaining the

by centuries of oppression

still

he

win the clergy and the orthodox populations, by pro-

claiming liberty of conscience, and the equality of different

religions in the eye of the law.

The

Prussians, however,

was only feebly ment of Warsaw declared war against Frederic William the Second. The people, attributing the loss of Krakof to treason, rushed to the prisons,

managed to take Krakof, which defended by its commander. The govern-

and promptly executed the seven

men who were

befell

them

They deserved the fate that they had been amongst the promoters of the
detained there.
this

Confederation of Targovitsa, they had been agents of Russia.

Kosciuszko condemned

bloody

justice,

and

insisted on the

punishment of the
trial

rioters,

but at the same time hastened the

of the guilty prisoners.

242

HISTORY OF RUSSIA.

[Chap.

XL

General Za'io-ntchek had been defeated

in the battle of

Gol-

kof by the Russians, and the Prussians were marching on the

army on the and bombardment of Warsaw. Catherine affected to be indignant at this abandonment of the holy war which was to put down the Revolution and to help the common cause of kings and religion. The pretensions of Prussia in respect to Krakof disturbed the good unVistula.

The King

of Prussia had quitted his

Rhine

in order to direct the siege

derstanding between the three powers of the North, disquieted

Austria,

and threatened

to

break the coalition formed against

France.
sian ally,
assault,

Frederic William, greatly disgusted with his Rus-

General Krushtchof, countermanded the order for

siege,

and raised the

being recalled

to his

own

do-

minions by an insurrection in Great Poland.

The Poles had hardly time to congratulate themselves on
this success.

The Russians were again

in possession of Vilna
Still

more threatening was the fact that the Russian general, Fersen, had crossed to the right bank of the Vistula in spite of Poninski, and was
advancing to meet Suvorof, who was coming np with the

the Austrians had entered Lublin.

army
at

of

the Ukraina, and

had

already beaten Sierakovski

If

Kruptchitse and at

Brest-Litovski.

the two Russian

armies, each of which was superior to the whole Polish force,

managed

to effect a junction, the insurrection

was crushed.
Sierakovski,

Kosciuszko,

who had

hastened to

reinforce

speedily returned to take

up

position at

Matsiovitsui on

the Vistula, equidistant from

Warsaw and

Lublin, where he

meant
bravest

to

oppose Fersen.

lieutenants,

tsevitch, the patriotic

Around him were gathered his Pototski, Kaminski, Kolontai, Niempoet and general. The evening before
"

the battle Kaminski pointed out to Xiemtseviteh the crows

that were flying

on their right.

Remember your
for the

Livv,"

he said

"it

is

bad omen."

"A

bad omen

Romans,

not for us," replied the brave poet.

ber, seventeen

On

the tenth of Octo-

hundred and ninety-four, Krushtchof attacked

1780-1796.]

CATHERINE

II.:

LAST YEARS.

243

the van of the Poles, while Fersen ordered Denisof to lead the
assault on the right,

and Tormasof on the

left.

The

Polish the

army, shaken by a violent cannonade, could not

charge of the bayonets.
the hands of the Russians.

resist

They gave way, and twenty-one

in

guns and two thousand seven hundred prisoners remained

Kosciuszko was carried
but there
is

All the generals were captured

off half

dead by the hetman Denisof,

absolutely no truth in the

story that he exclaimed, " Finis Poloniae."

erals treated their prisoners well,

commonly repeated The Russian genofficers tried to

and the

con-

sole the

" Return from the other World," a

wounded Niemtsevitch by complimenting him on the poem in manuscript which

horror-stricken by this calamity.

they found in his pocket.

Warsaw was
stitute for the revolt.

Vavrzhevski

took the place of Kosciuszko, but proved no adequate sub-

popular hero

who had been

the soul of the

Suvorof was

already before Praga, and the whole

its positions to the sound of drums The impetuous general at once divided his army into seven columns. The Russian soldiers, on the eve of the assault, put on white shirts, as if for a wedding, and the holy images were placed at the head of the columns. At three o'clock on the morning of the fourth of November the signal

Russian army occupied

and music.

was given, and

ramparts scaled.

in an

instant the fosses

were

filled

and the

"

The

Poles," says a Russian witness, " de-

fended themselves like heroes, with desperate recklessness."

all the horrors of a capture by assault. In vain Suvorof renewed his orders " to spare the inhabitants,

Praga suffered
to

give

quarter

to

the

vanquished, not

to

slay without a

motive."
the Poles,

The

soldiers

were too much exasperated against

to

whom

they believed

be republicans,

atheists,

accomplices of the French Jacobins, murderers of their comrades,

disarmed

in

the revolt of the seventeenth

of April.

The dead numbered twelve hundred, the prisoners only a " The streets are covered with corpses blood thousand.
;

244
flows
in

HISTORY OF RUSSIA.
torrents," says the first
terrified

[Chap.

XL

despatch of Suvorof.
ill

The

massacre of Praga

Warsaw, which was

protected

by only the width of the Vistula from the Russian bullets. Suvorof refused to treat with Pototski and the men of the seventeenth of April, and King Stanislas had to act as
mediator.
erty, a

Suvorof guaranteed to the inhabitants their propall

pardon, and offered passports to

persons

who were

compromised.

He made

his

entrance

into

was created field-marshal by the Empress.

Warsaw, and The King was

sent to Grodno. The third treaty of partition, forced on the Empress by the importunity of Prussia, and in which Austria also took part, was put in execution in seventeen hundred and ninety-five. Russia took the rest of Lithuania as far as the Niemen, including Vilna, Grodno, Kovno, Novogrodek, Slonim, and the rest of Volhynia to the Bug, including Vladimir, Lutsk, and Kremenets. It thus attained the extreme limit of the countries formerly governed by the princely

descendants of Rurik, except in the case of Gallicia, for the

Empress, whose policy had abandoned Poland

allowed Austria to take

to the

Germans,
partition.

Red Russia

after the first

Besides the Russian territory, Russia also annexed the old

Lithuania of the Iagelos, and finally acquired Kurland and

Samogitia.
Prussia

now

possessed

all

Eastern Poland, with

Warsaw
Its

Austria had Krakof, Sandomir, Lublin, and Shelm.

pos-

sessions extended towards the north, almost to the vicinity of

Warsaw. The Polish army

cluded
in

of Vavrzhevski of

had refused

to

be

in-

the capitulation
its

Warsaw,
to

but, agitated

by the

quarrels of

leaders,
it

and weakened by want of discipline

accept an honorable con-

and desertion,

was obliged

vention at Radoshuitse.

The

officers

kept their swords, and

obtained passports for foreign travel.

The

prisoners

made

at

Matsiovitsui had been divided amongst the governments

which

had seized the places of

their birth.

Madalinski was sent to

1780-1796.]

CATHERINE

II.

LAST YEARS.
;

245
Kosciuszko,

Prussia

Kolontai and

Zaiontchek to Austria

Kapostas, Kilinski, Pototski, and Vavrzhevski to Saint Petersburg.

Poland was not yet dead

at

out of the remains of the

army dispersed

Radoshuitse, Dombrovski was to form the

for

famous Polish legions,

find

twenty years inseparable from the

banners of the French Republic and the Empire.

We
their

shall

Dombrovski
Poles,

in

Egypt, Iosiph Poniatovski

at

at

Borodino.
conin

The

defeated
all

Matsiovitsui,
in

querors

on

the

battle-fields

Europe,

will

meet
in

Italy,

Switzerland, in Austria, in Prussia, in Poland, in

Lithuania.

Napoleon

will

satiate

their

vengeance against the robber

powers, and, two hundred years after Vladislas, will lead the
Polish troops into the holy city of Moscow.

CATHERINE THE SECOND AND THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. WAR WITH PERSIA.
Just before the breaking
out of the Revolution
the two

governments of Louis the Sixteenth and Catherine the Second

entered into negotiations for the purpose of forming a quadruple alliance, including Russia, Austria, and both houses of

Bourbon, which was destined

tensions of

to

keep

in

check the naval preAfter

England and the encroachments of Prussia.

to

the taking of the Bastile, Catherine understood that she could

no longer look
Paris, however,

France, which was then occupied with

support.
anxiety,

its

internal transformation, for

She followed events

in

with

much

antipathy to the

new

principles,
to take

showed the most lively was one of those who advised

fell ill

Louis the Sixteenth

refuge in Varennes, and

at

the news of the execution of the

January.
herself to
alism.

King on the twenty-first of The correspondent of Voltaire and Diderot allowed be carried away by terror into the opposite of libercast

She had the bust of Voltaire taken down and

the rubbish of a lumber-room.

among

She caused Russians

suspected of liberal ideas to be watched, and their letters to be

inspected; she mutilated Kniazhnin's tragedv of

"Vadim

at

246.

HISTORY OF RUSSIA.
it

[Chap.

XL
;

Novgorod," and spoke of having

burned by the executioner

Radishtchef, the author of the "Journey from Saint Peters-

burg
rested

to

serfage,

Moscow," a curious book, with many reflections on was dismissed and sent to Siberia Novikof was ar;

and confined

in

Schlusselburg, his publishing-houses

and

his printing-press closed,

and

all

his enterprises ruined.

to

She dismissed Genest, the French ambassador, and refused

recognize,
first

the Constitution

of seventeen

hundred and

ninety-one, and then the Republic; put forth an edict an-

nouncing the rupture of diplomatic relations with France;

forbade the tricolor flag to enter the Russian ports; expelled
all

monarchic principle received the emigres with open arms, and hastened to acknowledge Louis the Eighteenth. In seventeen hundred and ninety-two she wrote the celebrated note on the restoration of the royal power and aristoto

French subjects who refused

;

swear

fidelity to the

cratic

privileges

in

France,

assuring

every

one

that

ten

thousand men would be

lution.

sufficient to

operate a counter-revo-

She encouraged Gustavus the Third, who was shortly

ball,

afterwards assassinated by his nobility, at a masked

on
put

March

sixteenth, seventeen

hundred and ninety-two,

;

to

himself at the head of the crusade against democracy

urged

England

to aid the
;

Count of Artois
zeal

in a

scheme

for a descent

on France
In sp'tc of

and stimulated the

all

of Austria and

Prussia.
to

this,

though she had many times consented

negotiate treaties of subsidies and promised troops, she took

care never to engage in a war with the West.
is

"My
is

position

taken," she said,

"my

part assigned;

it

my
latter

duty to

watch the Turks, the Poles, and Sweden."

The

became

reconciled with France after the deatli of Gustavus the Third.

The punishment of the Jacobins of Warsaw and Turkey was indeed more easy and certainly more lucrative work. Perhaps we must also take into account an admission that she
made,
cellor
in seventeen

hundred and ninety-one,

to her

Vice-ChanI

Ostermann

"Am

wrong?

For reasons that

cannot

1780-1796.]

CATHERINE

II.

LAST YEARS.
I

247

give to the Courts of Berlin

and Vienna,
I

wish to involve

them
of

in these affairs, so that

may have elbow-room.

Many

my

enterprises are

still

unfinished,

pied so as to leave

me

unfettered."

and they must be occuShe excused herself for

to hasten the

not taking part in the anti-revolutionary contest, alleging the

war with Turkey

and when obliged

Peace of

Iassy on account of the revolution of the third of

made

the

Polish war another excuse.

ended, she pretended to excite the zeal

soldiers

May, she When the war was of Suvorof and his

but in reality

against the " atheists " of the West,

only dreamed of forwarding her schemes in the East.

MoThe
to

hammed, the new king of Persia, had invaded Georgia and

burnt
Tiflis,

the capital of Irakli, Catherine's protege.

for

her Empress court, and ordered Valerian Zubof to conquer Persia. In reality Catherine had been, against her will, more usesent

an

exiled

brother of

Mohammed

ful

to

France than

to the coalition.

By

her intervention in

Poland and her projects against the East, she had raised the
jealousy and suspicions
of Prussia

and Austria.
;

She took and with

care to play off one against the other

tition

made

the second par-

with Frederic William in spite of Austria;

Francis the Second the third partition, which disgusted Prussia.

She contributed indirectly

to

agitate

and dissolve the

sixth (or

coalition, whilst the Polish insurrection,

encouraged by France,

more properly the seventeenth) of November, seventeen hundred and

prevented her from joining
it.

She died on the

ninety-six,

aged sixty-seven years.

No

sovereign since Ivan

the Terrible had extended the frontiers of the empire by such

vast conquests.

She had given Russia Niemen, the Dniester, and the Black Sea.

for

boundaries the

CHAPTER

XII.

PAUL THE

FIRST.

1796-1801.

Peace Policy: Accession to the Second Coalition. Campaigns of the Ionian Islands, Italy, Switzerland, Holland, and NaAlliance with Bonaparte: The League of the Neutrals ples. and the Great Scheme against India.

PEACE POLICY: ACCESSION TO THE SECOND

COALITION.
was forty-two years of age when he ascended the throne. He was intelligent, and had some natural gifts, but his character was soured by the close dependence in which he had been held by his

PAVEL,

or

Paul the

First,

mother,

who had even

deprived him of the education of his

to

children,

and forbade him

appear before the army, by the

the favorites, and by the isola-

humiliations forced on
tion to

him by

which he was abandoned by the courtiers, who always The took pains to pay court to the powers of the moment. troubled and disdeath father's mystery surrounding his
There was a touch of Hamlet in Paul the First. Like Peter the Third, he had a taste for military He had a high idea minutiae which amounted to a mania.
quieted him.
of his authority,

He is supposed to and was born a despot. " Know that the only person have uttered the famous saying, of consideration in Russia is the person whom I address, and
only during the time that
the Revolution
I

am

addressing him."

He

hated

with a blind hate, such as even Catherine

1796-1801/,

PAUL

I.

249

could not

feel.

Many

of his eccentricities of conduct

may be

explained by his desire always to take a course directly in

opposition to his mother,

whom

he secretly accused of having

cruel,

usurped

his

crown.

Without being

he caused

much

unhappiness, since he was as prompt to chastise as to pardon,

as prodigal of exiles to Siberia as of

unexpected favors.

He

began by abolishing the edict of Peter the Third about

the succession, and re-established the monarchic principle of

inheritance by primogeniture, from male to male in the direct
line.

He
to

took advantage of his mother's obsequies to cause

his father's

remains to be exhumed, and to render the same

honors

both sovereigns

in

Alexis Orlof had to march in

father,

Church of the Fortress. procession by the coffin of his

the

and

to

carry his

crown.

He

did

not

punish his

mother's favorites,

but removed

person, giving his confidence to Rostoptchin

them from about his own and the austere

in his place as

Araktcheef.

Bezborodko he confirmed

Minister

of Foreign Affairs.

To

re-establish the principle of authority,

in

which he thought

had been shaken

Russia, he revived the old rude manners,

compelled the carriages of his subjects to halt when he passed,

and made women

as well

as

men

salute

him by throwing

themselves on their knees in the

mud
high

or snow.

He

issued

decrees full of minute provisions, forbidding the wearing of

round

hats, frock-coats, waistcoats,

collars, large neckties,

and everything which savored of Jacobinism. He banished " " from the official language the words society," citizen," and
other terms which
his

mother had delighted

to honor.

He

made

the censorship of the theatre and the press more rigor-

ous than ever, forbade the importation of European books and

music, forced the Russians

who were
to allow

travelling or studying

abroad to return, and refused

his territory, unless

any Frenchman to enter

he were provided with a passport signed

years grave abuses must have crept into

by the princes of the house of Bourbon.

In Catherine's
last

250

HISTORY OP RUSSIA.

[Chap. XII.

the army, and no one but an emperor with a genius for war

could accomplish the reforms which were necessary

if

Russia
tactics

were

to

keep

pace with Western

improvements

in

and

in

arms.

Paul unfortunately took up the reforms in his

spirit.

usual narrow

He had

a craze for Prussian methods,

and abolished the Russian national uniform, convenient, soldier-like,

and well suited

to the climate as

it

was.

The Rus-

sians did not recognize themselves in their Prussian costume,

with pigtails, powder, shoe-buckles, shoes, gaiters, heavy caps,

and uncomfortable
said, "

hats.
is

Wig-powder
is

Old Suvorof shook his head and not gun-powder curls are not cannon
;

a pigtail

not a sabre

am

not a Prussian, but a Russian

born."
nal,

This epigram, a roughly rhymed quatrain in the origiexile of the martial humorist to his

was punished by the

Kutchevskoe.

village of

There he could bestride a cane and

play horse with the small boys of the district, ring the church
bells,

read the epistle, and play the organ to his heart's con-

tent.

Paul showed more method and common-sense when he

tried to reform the finances,

last

which had been impaired

wars, the

in the

years of Catherine by endless

dishonesty of

officials,

the luxury of the court, and the prodigal gifts befavorites.

affairs,

stowed on

As

to foreign

Paul's early policy was peaceful.

He

discontinued the levying of recruits

had been accustomed to do men to every five hundred

from Persia, and
left

in

the

way

that his

mother

that

is,

in the proportion of three

souls.

He withdrew
its

his forces

Georgia to take care of

own

destiny.

showed some pity, recalled prisoners from Siberia, transferred King Stanislas from Grodno to Saint Petersburg, visited Kosciuszko at Schlusselburg, and set him, with the other captives, at liberty. He bade Koluitchef, Envoy Extraordinary at Berlin, tell the King of Prussia that he was neither for conquest nor aggrandizement. He dictated to Ostermann a circular which was to be communicated to foreign powers, in which he declared that Russia, and Russia

To

the Poles he even

1796-1801.]

PAUL

I.

251

alone,

dred and

had not ceased from waging war since seventeen hunthat these forty years of war had exhausted fifty-six
; ;

the nation

that the

Emperor's humanity did not allow him

the

to refuse his beloved subjects

peace for which they were

reasons the

lousing

that though

for these

Russian army

would take no part in the contest with France, nevertheless, " the Emperor would remain as closely as ever united with his allies, and oppose by all possible means the progress of the mad French republic, which threatened Europe with total ruin, by the destruction of its laws, privileges, property, religion, and
manners."

He

refused

all

armed

assistance to Austria, then

;

alarmed by Bonaparte's
sels

victories in Italy

he recalled the ves-

sent by Catherine to join the English fleet in blockad-

ing the coasts of France and Holland.

overtures

He

even received the

made by

Caillard, the

French envoy in Prussia, to

the Russian envoy Koluitchef, and caused the latter to ob-

Emperor did not consider himself at war with harm them, that he was disposed to live in peace with them, and that he would
the French, that he had clone nothing to

serve " that the

persuade his

allies to finish

the war, offering to this end the

mediation of Russia."

But

difficulties

soon

arose

between France and Russia.

given the Ionian Islands
to-

The
East,

treaty of

the French,

Campo Formio had who thus acquired a

position threatening to the

and a greater influence over the Divan. The Directorate authorized Dombrovski to organize Polish legions in Italy. Panin at Berlin intercepted a letter from the Directorate to
the French envoy, in which there was a question of the restoration of Poland,

under a prince of Brandenburg.

Paul, on

his side, took into his

pay the corps of the Prince of Conde, and Podolia.

and stationed

ten thousand emigres in Volhynia

Fie offered an asylum to Louis the Eighteenth,

who was

ex-

pelled from Brunswick, established

him

in the ducal palace

of Mitava,
rubles.

and gave him a pension of two hundred thousand

that a

The news

French expedition was being nays-

252

HISTORY OF RUSSIA.

[Chap.

XIL

teriouslv organized at

Toulon caused hiin to tremble

for the

security of the coasts of the Black Sea,

ately put into a state of defence.

which were immediof Zagurski,

The capture

Russian Consul
parte,

at

Corfu

the reduction of Malta by BonaSaint Petersburg of the banished

of
their

and the

arrival at

knights,

who
title

offered

Paul the protectorate

;

order,

with the
territory

of

Grand Master
;

the invasion of the Swiss

by the Directorate

the

expulsion of the Pope and

the proclamation of the the rupture.

Roman

Republic,

all

precipitated

Paul further concluded an alliance with Turkey, which was

irritated at the invasion of
tria,

Egypt, and also with England, AusIt

and the kingdom of Naples.

was thus

that,

owing

to

Bonaparte's double aggression against Malta and Egypt, Russia

and Turkey were forced, contrary

cause.

to all traditions, to

make

common
troops to

Paul undertook that

his

fleet

should join

the Turkish

and English squadrons, to furnish a body of

a

make

descent upon Holland, and another to con-

quer the Ionian Islands, besides a great auxiliary

army

for the

campaigns

in Switzerland

and

Italy.

CAMPAIGNS OF THE IONIAN ISLANDS, ITALY, SWITZERLAND, HOLLAND, AND NAPLES.

In the autumn of seventeen

hundred and ninety-eight a

the

Turco-Russian
Ionian Islands.
ples

fleet

capt tired

French

garrisons

of the

Among
first

the powers opposed to France,

field.

Na-

was the

to

take the

The unlucky Colonel

wretched
to collect.

Mack was summoned from Vienna

to organize the

army which the Queen had managed net was the commander of the French forces stationed in the vicinity of Rome. On the twenty-fifth of November the Neapolitan army suddenly invaded the territory of the Roman republic in five divisions. The strongest column, consisting
of thirty thousand

Champion-

directed

its

men, under the command of the King, course upon Rome, which Championnet immedi-

CHURCH OF PETER AND PAUL

IN

THE FORTRESS.

1796-1801.]

PAUL

I.

253

ately evacuated so as to unite his forces farther to the North.

Although Ferdinand entered the Holy City with pomp, when he found that the French had closed
side of him, he took
his
favorite,

all

possible

in

on every

the

Duca

d'Ascoli, and,

exchanging clothes with him, secretly deserted his army and Seventeen returned to Naples on the tenth of December. days after the Neapolitan army had entered Rome the French Meanwhile in Naples returned in the full glory of conquest.
cowardice had shown
itself

everywhere, but nowhere more

strikingly than in the King.

He

ordered
to

all

his ships of

war to be burnt, and hastened himself

Palermo.

The lower

classes, seeing the fearful conflagration, suspected treachery in

the generals, and a tumult broke out which threatened

Mack
under

and

his officers

with destruction.

The King then

a

fled

Nelson's protection to Sicily, and appointed as Viceroy Prince

Pignatelli, one of the
est
qualities.

Queen's
the

favorites,

man

of the low-

When

people heard that Pignatelli had

sent a messenger to

Championnet without asking permission of the city authorities, that Capua had been evacuated by Mack, and that the French had gained all the approaches to the town without striking a blow, they immediately formed into a kind of assembly, and strengthened themselves by a
choice of officers from the nobility and middle classes, so that

they were ready to act against not only

roy, but also the French.

Mack and

the Vice-

Mack and

Pignatelli

had persuaded

the French to

agree to a truce of two months on the condi-

tion that certain strongholds should

be evacuated and that

the city of Naples should pay the French ten million francs.

But when the French delegates came to collect the first half of this impost, a great tumult arose, and thousands of the lazzaroni stormed Castel Nuovo, or the New Port, and collecting arms at the arsenal, hastened against Pignatelli's palace. The
Viceroy then followed the King's example, and fled to
Sicily,

where he was confined in prison for desertion. Mack, in January, seventeen hundred and ninety-nine, resigned his

254

HISTORY OF EUSSIA.
and
in the

("Chap. XII.

position as Neapolitan general,

trian took refuge with

uniform of an Aus-

Championnet, who received him with

in the city,

kindness.

The uproar increased

a lazzarone or priest,
lessly

and

finally every one, not

who was found on

the street was ruth-

murdered.

Championnet, on the twentieth of January,

gates.

divided his army into four columns, and endeavored to penetrate the city

by four different

Every step was bought

with blood

every house was transformed into a castle, and

though the
yet

skill of the

French and

their well-directed artillery

did great execution, and though the natives fought without

officers,
flict
it

came

to

was only on the third day that the bloody conan end. Before the thousand Frenchmen and three

thousand Neapolitans

who had

lost their lives

were buried, the

a triumphal

new

republic was declared.

The French made

his

entry,

Championnet took up
to prepare the

abode

in the

King's palace,

and the Philosopher of Southern

Italy,

Maria Pagano, was

summoned
was
Naples.

constitution of the

new

state,

which
of

called the

Parthenopean Republic,

after the old

name

The Russian army in Holland was put under the orders of Hermann, that of Switzerland under those of Rimski-Korsakof, while, at the request of Austria and the suggestion of England, the victor of Fokshany and Ruimnik was appointed Paul the First, to the Austro-Russian army of Upper Italy. flattered by this mark of deference, recalled Suvorof from his
village exile.

" Suvorof has

no need of

laurels," wrote

the

Tsar, " but the country has need of Suvorof."

The
to

Directorate, taken

by

surprise, having not only

France
to say,

protect,

but likewise the Batavian, Helvetian, Cisalpine,

republics,

Ligurian,

Roman, and Neapolitan

that

is

the vast line of country that extends from the Zuyder Zee to
the Gulf of Taranto,
to those

had
:

very inferior numbers to oppose

of the coalition

in

Holland twenty thousand men,

under Brune, against

forty

thousand Anglo-Russians, under

1796-1801.]

PAUL
;

I.

255

York and Hermann on the Rhine, fifty thousand, under Bernadotte and Jourdan, against the seventy thousand of the Archduke Charles in Switzerland, thirty thousand, under Massena, against Hotze and Bellegarde, who had seventy thousand Austrians in the Vorarlberg and the Tyrol in Upper Italy, fifty thousand, under Scherer, against the sixty thousand Austrians of Kray at Naples, thirty thousand, under Macdonald, against thirty thousand English, Russians, and
;
; ;

Sicilians.

At last the Russians arrived in Switzerland, forty thousand number, under Rimski-Korsakof in Italy, to the number of forty thousand, divided into two corps, that of Rosenberg and that of Rebinder, with Suvorof in chief command. Consequently the French had only one hundred and eighty thousand to oppose to three hundred and fifty thousand allies. When Suvorof passed through Vienna, and was offered the
in
;

position
tion that

of Austrian field-marshal, he took

it

on the condi-

he should be subject only to the Emperor, not to

the Hof-Kriegsrath, the Aulic council of war.

refused to communicate
minister.
his

He

therefore

schemes

to

Thugut, the acting

the Austrians questioned him as to his plan showed a blank paper signed by the Emperor Paul. His object, he declared, was Paris, where he would restore the throne and the altar. To his soldiers he repeated " A sudden glance, the formulae of his military catechism rapidity, impetuosity The van of the army is not to wait for
of campaign, he
:

When

the rear

Musket-balls are fools

bayonets are the fine

in

fel-

lows

will beat

The French beat the Austrians them in columns." He scoffed

columns, and

we
too

at the

slowness and

pedantry of the Hof-Kriegsrath.

"Parades, manoeuvres!
!

much
well
;

confidence in their talents

but to be always beaten

desires that,
first

is

To know how to conquer, not smart The Emperor of

!

Germany
I

when

have to give battle to-morrow,

should

address myself to the Court of Vienna.

accidents of

war change rapidly

one cannot be tied

The down

256
to a fixed plan.
seize opportunity

HISTORY OF RUSSIA.
Fortune
flies

[Chap. XII.

like
;

the lightning
will

one must

by the forelock

it

never come back."

The Austrians had already defeated Jourdan at Stokach, March twenty-ninth, seventeen hundred and ninety-nine, and Scherer at Magnano, April ninth. Massena, although victorious at the
first

battle of Zurich,

had been obliged

to retreat

behind the Limmat and the Linth, on the heights of the Albis.

On

the twenty-eighth of April, Austria, believing that

it

where the French were concerned

Rastadt.

might

violate with

impu-

nity the law of nations, assassinated their plenipotentiaries at

Suvorof, on his arrival at Verona, took the com-

mand
;

of the allied forces.

The Austro-Russian army numbered about ninety thousand the French, under Moreau, no more than thirty thousand, which included the Italian legions and
three or four

thousand

men

of the Polish legions.

These Poles represented

the Slav element in the French army, as the Russians did in

that of the coalition.
at Matsiovitsui

This quarrel of kinsmen, which began

to

and Warsaw, was

be continued on the bank

this river at

of the Adda.

Suvorof surprised the passage of

April
twenty-eighth, penetrated

Cassano, on

the
;

centre

of

Morcau's division, and surrounded the right wing

Serrurier

and about three thousand men were made prisoners.

Moreau
of

retired into

Piedmont

imperilled next by the loss

to take refuge in the

Ceva and of Turin, he was forced

Alps.

Suvorof made his entry into Milan amidst the acclapriests, the excited populace, of all

mations of the nobles, the

Republic.

the enemies of the Revolution, and abolished

the Cisalpine

But, harassed by the advice of the Hof-Kriegsrath,

instead of attacking the fifteen thousand

men who remained

with Moreau, he amused himself by laying siege to Mantua,

Alessandria, and the citadel of Turin.

the

Macdonald hastened from the end of the Peninsula with army of Naples. After having opened communications
Moreau, he conceived the project of throwing himself

with

=5r:

WW

1796-1801.]

PAUL

I.

257

between Alessandria and Mantua, and separating the two

principal bodies of the allied army.
trians
bia.

He

defeated the Aus-

on the Tidona, but came up with Suvorof on the Treb-

The

battle lasted three days,

:

from the seventeenth

to the

nineteenth of June
Poles rendered
it

the ferocity of the French, Russians,

and

extremely bloody.

On

the seventeenth the

French amounted
thousand
six
;

to only twenty-eight

thousand against forty

the next day twenty-four thousand against thirty-

thousand

ten to twelve thousand men,

Moreau

in

numbers were sure to tell. Each army lost from and Macdonald hastened to rejoin Mantua had capitulated. the gorges of the Alps.
:

In the South the Anglo-Russians, allied with the banditti of

Cardinal Ruffo and of the brigand Michael Pezza

whom

the

people called Fra Diavolo, expelled the French garrisons from

Neapolitan territory.
of Naples with blood,

frightful reaction flooded the streets

by the bandits and

ninety-nine.

lazzaroni in July, seventeen

and two thousand houses were burned hundred and

The Directorate made a last effort to reconquer Italy. army of the Alps, increased by new reinforcements to
thousand men, was placed under the
Joubert,

The
forty

who had
and
to

said to his

command vouns wife, " You

of

General

will see

me

either dead or victorious."

Joubert wished to relieve Ales-

sandria,

prevent this Suvorof marched quickly up with

seventy thousand men, and gave

fifteenth.

him

battle at

Novi on August

Joubert was killed at the beginning of the action.

lost eight

The two armies each

of the Polo-French

thousand men, and the remains

troops
lost to

fell

back into the mountains of

;

Genoa.

Italy

was

France

the Cisalpine,

Roman, and
victory.

Neapolitan republics were extinguished.

The Russians and Austrians separated after the The German generals could not endure the vanity of

Suvorof,

who had
icy.

been given the additional

title

of Kniaz Italiiski.

Thugut was even more disturbed by his peculiar views of polItaliiski imagined that he had fought for the restoration
VOL.
II.

17

258
of sovereigns, of Austria.

HISTORY OF RUSSIA.
and not
for the private

[Chap. XII.

ambition of the house

He
its

wished therefore to establish a national gov-

ernment

in

Piedmont, and to reorganize the Piedmontese

army under

own

standard.

But Thugut cared nothing

Pope.
it

about the restoration of Victor-Amadeus, or of the

The misunderstanding
orof should

increased
Italy,

was decided that SuvRimski-Korsakof

in

abandon

and

join

snowy mountains of HelveSuvorof, who already saw tia with a purely Russian army. himself in Pranche-Comte and on the route to Paris, accepted
Switzerland, so as to defend the
the work.

In Switzerland, after the first battle of Zurich, Massena had retired to the heights of the Albis, behind the line formed by the Linth, the lake of Zurich, and the Limmat. He had been opposed in his movements by the Archduke Charles, by Korsakof, with twentywith twenty-five thousand men and by Hotze, with twenty-seven eight thousand Russians The Archduke was about to evacuate thousand Austrians. Switzerland and lay siege to Philippsburg, and he was to be It would replaced by Suvorof with twenty thousand men. be a critical moment for the allies when the Archduke should
; ;

have evacuated Switzerland and Suvorof should not yet have

arrived,

and

this

was the moment eagerly awaited by Mas-

had now sixty thousand men against fifty-five which the army of Suvorof, Prince of Italy, would thousand,
sena.

He

increase to seventy-five thousand.

On

the twenty-fifth of Sep-

tember Massena surprised the passage of the Limmat near The Russian Dietikon, and cut the Russian army in two.
grenadiers

who defended

Dietikon fought

till

their

powder

was exhausted, refused to surrender, and died in their ranks. The other corps were defeated one after the other. Korsakof,
forced back upon Zurich, caused the gates to be closed.

In
re-

the night Massena sent

him

envoys,

who were

captured or

pulsed by musketry.

On

the twenty-sixth of September Kor-

sakof formed an immense square of fifteen thousand men, and

1796-1801.]

PAUL

I.

25<J

attacked the French.

says Major Masson, "
at every point."

and impenetrable mass," had always driven the enemy before it

this

" This dense

tactics, which had been and the Turks, was certain to fail Decimated by the sharpshooters and against the French. light artillery, shaken by a general charge of cavalry, and infantry with bayonets, the Russians had to fall back into Zu-

But

system of

successful against the Poles

covered with dead, and with wounded, who pressed holy images and relics to their breasts. They had lost six thousand men, their guns, the army treasure,
rich, leaving the field of battle

the official papers, and sacred plate.

sau.

Korsakof

fled to Egli-

Then Massena made Udinot attack Zurich and the Swiss legion, and took all the Russian stores and baggage. It was here that the celebrated Lavater perished, killed by

On the twenty-fifth Soult, on his had crossed the Linth, and defeated Hotze, who was killed. The allies retreated in disorder on SchafFhausen, with a loss of ten thousand prisoners, twenty Austrian cannons, and nearly all the Russian artillery.
a drunken Swiss soldier.
side,

Such was the victory of Zurich. " Bonaparte," says M. Duruy, " has no more glorious battle, for the victories which
insure the salvation of a country are worth

which only add

more than those power or the glory of its chiefs." Suvorof, however, had arrived, by dint of forced marches, at
to its

Taverno, near Bellinzona.

neglected to gather together a sufficient

The Austrian administration had number of sumpter

in

mules

for the

passage of the Alps, and Suvorof lost four pre-

cious days,

which were spent

impressing them from the

surrounding country.

He

reached only as far as the Saint

Gothard on the

twenty-first,

and crossed

it

under immense
at

difficulties, after a

sharp skirmish with some French detach-

ments stationed on the mountains.

so precipitous that the road

He

plunged

once into

the narrow valley of the Reuss, enclosed between mountains

many

times crosses the torrent,

notably at the Pont du Diable.

260
" In this

HISTORY OF EUSSIA.

[Chap. XII.

kingdom of terrors," writes Suvorof in his despatch to Paul, " abysses open beside us at every step, like
tombs awaiting our
crashing
of
arrival.

Nights spent among the clouds,

masses of rocks and

thunder that never ceases,

rain, fog, the noise of cataracts, the

ice

avalanches, enormous

which

fall

from the heights, torrents which sometimes carry

men and
mounted

horses

down
in

the precipices, the Saint Gothard, that

it,

colossus which sees the mists pass under

all,

we
fail

have sur-

and

these inaccessible spots the

enemy has
to describe

been forced
the horrors

to give

way
seen,

before us.

Words

we have

and

in

the midst of which Provi-

dence has preserved us."

natives

The impression produced on

the

of the great Russian plains by the grandeur of the

is

Swiss Alps
of an

graphically sketched in the curious " Narrative

Old Soldier," the memoirs of an eyewitness who was a companion of Suvorof. The tenacious Lecourbe, charged by Massena to retard the Russian advance, had only eleven thousand men, but with

them he expected

to

"crush Suvorof

in the

mountains."

At

Hospital he disputed the passage of the Reuss, cannonaded the Russians till his ammunition was exhausted, threw his
artillery into the

stream, went

down

to

defend the Pont du

fell

Diable, which he blew up, and

finally

back on Seedorf,

Suvorof crossed the prewhere he broke down the bridge. cipitous chain of Schachenthal, and only reached Altdorf ad Multenthal on the twenty-sixth, having lost two thousand

men on
full

was here that he heard of the disaster of Zurich and the flight of Korsakof, and that he grasped the
the way.
It

horror of his situation

lost in the heart of the

mountains,

betrayed by the carelessness of

thal as
it

his allies, enclosed in

Multen-

were

in a mouse-trap,

surrounded on

all

sides

by a

numbers superior to his own. On his on the road rear Gudin had again occupied the Upper Reuss to Stanz Lecourbe had taken up a position at Seedorf; on the
victorious army, with
;

road to Schwitz Massena had concentrated the corps of Mortier

1796-1801.]

PAUL

I.

2G1

on the road to Glarus Molitor was posted,

about to reinforce.
Suvorof's
life.

whom

Soult was

This was the most splendid

moment
;

of
his

victories in

His heroic retreat is more glorious than Italy, which were gained with superior forces
this
little

no

general in such a desperate situation ever showed more indomitable

old.

energy than

man, now nearly seventy years

He

resolved to cross

sixty-five centimeters deep,

and the route

to

Bragel, though the snow was and to cut a way by the Kleinthal Glarus. His rearguard, left in the Mul-

Mont

tenthal, resisted for three days the assaults of

Massena, thus

protecting the retreat of the army, while the vanguard took

Glarus, and forced Molitor back on Naefels.

There Molitor
retire

checked the Russians, who were obliged to

Rindskopff, on whose glaciers
ished.

on the
per-

many hundreds
in

of

men

Thence they succeeded

gaining Illanz, Coire, and

Feldkirch.

Suvorof, with the gallant remnant of his army,

Iller

took up his winter-quarters between the

and the Lech.

but

On

the twenty-seventh of

August the Anglo-Russians had

fleet,

disembarked on the Texel, and captured the Dutch

the Batavian
liberty,

populations remained faithful to the cause of and on the nineteenth of September Brune, reinforced, defeated the allies at Bergen. He then fought them in four

them in Zyp, and made Alkmaer and York capitulate on October eighteenth. The Anglo-Russian army obtained leave to march out. The remains
other battles, besieged
the

Duke

of

of the Russian forces re-embarked

in

but being coldly received

England, they were, so

to speak, " interned " in the islands

of Jersey

and Guernsey.
frontiers of the republic,

Massena and Brune had saved the

d'etat of

prepared the ruin of the coalition, and deprived the coup-

Brumaire of

all

excuse.

Wl

HISTORY OF RUSSIA.

[Chap. XII.

ALLIANCE WITH BONAPARTE THE LEAGUE OF THE NEUTRALS, AND THE GREAT SCHEME AGAINST
:

INDIA.
Paul the
treason.
First, Savorof,

and

all

Russia accused Austria of

The Emperor Francis, by the advice of England, humbly consented to explain the misunderstanding which had lost Korsakof, and almost lost Suvorof. The Tsar, a little
softened, suspended the retreat of the Russian army, but insisted in return

on the

recall of

Thugut, and the restoration of

Austria could
its

the Italian princes to their reconquered States.

not relish this

disinterested

policy,

or

renounce

plans.

Thugut, threatened with the

plete the rupture.
It

loss of his

post, labored to

com-

was insinuated

to the

Russian Emperor

that the maintenance of his troops in

heavy charge
of Ancona.

for the

hereditary States.

Bohemia constituted a The irritable Tsar

learned in addition that a conflict had taken place at the siege

This maritime station was being besieged by the

Austrians, Russians, and Turks; the Austrian general secretly

concluded a capitulation with the French, stipulated that his

soldiers alone should be admitted into the fortress,

and caused

the Turkish and Russian flags, which had been fixed on the

ramparts beside his own, to be removed.

This insult to his

banner completed Paul's exasperation.

Similar diplomatic results followed after the defeat at Ber-

gen

a quarrel with England, which was likewise accused of

Austria. the

treason, soon succeeded to the dispute with

parte,

Bonafruits of

who promptly destroyed at Marengo all Suvorof s victories, who appeared to the Russians

avenger against the perfidy of the Austrians,

blinded him, cleverly turned to account Paul's

Bonaparte,

almost as an

whose despotic principles reassured the Tsar, and whose glory

irritation.

He

began by declaring that he returned, without exchange, all the Russian prisoners, newly equipped at the expense of
France.
tria

Paul was the more touched by this action, as Ausand England had refused to exchange the Russian sol-

1796-1801.]

PAUL
French prisoners

I.

203
they held.
Negotiations

diers for the

whom

were opened by means of Berlin, and the French and Russian Bonaparte took care to attack the Tsar agents at Hamburg.
on his weak
sides, his easily offended dignity

and
in

his affectation

of chivalrous disinterestedness.

He

offered to indemnify the

King
island.

of Sardinia, to re-establish the

Pope

Rome, and

to

recognize Paul as Grand Master of Malta, and owner of the

Malta was
Their refusal

at

that time blockaded

by the English,

who
of
it.

in

September, eighteen hundred, made themselves masters

to relinquish this

important post to Paul

the First greatly irritated him.

Disturbed by the maritime

tyranny of Great Britain, which had declared the ports of

its allies in a state of siege, and had begun once more the system of vexations against the neutral ships, Paul renewed the famous Act of Armed Neutrality, and sought the support of Prussia, Sweden, and Denmark. Bonaparte has-

France and

tened to express his assent to the Russian principles.

this

During

time General Sprengtporten, who, under pretext of taking

of the Russian prisoners in Paris,

command

had been sent on

a secret mission, was followed there by Koluitchef, charged

with more precise instructions.

to
to

Koluitchef was particularly

persuade Bonaparte to take the

make

it

title of King himself, and hereditary in his family, as the only means " of

changing the revolutionary principles which have armed all Europe against France." On this point the First Consul was
only too well disposed.
bases
:

Negotiations began on the following

France was to respect the integrity of Naples

to re-establish the

and

Wurtemberg,

King
itself,

of Sardinia in Pied-

mont, while reserving Savoy for

and

to retain the left

bank of the Rhine, subject

for the indemnification of

to

an understanding with Russia,

the depossessed princes. It was under the Franco-Russian mediation that secularization was to
take place in

Germany. by
a daily

Paul, with his usual impetuosity, was possessed

increasing passion for Bonaparte

he surrounded himself with

; ;

2G4
his portraits,

HISTORY OF RUSSIA.

[Chap. XII.

drank his health publicly, and abruptly ordered Louis the Eighteenth to quit Mitava.
It

was then that the two sovereigns arranged together the

its

great scheme that had for

object the complete overthrow

of the English rule in India.

it

France

still

occupied Egypt

keep garrisons in the southern ports of the kingdom of Naples the French agents traversed Arabia
to
;

was authorized

and the Indian

at the

States.

Paul on his

side, to secure

himself a

basis of operations, ordered his troops to the Caucasus, and,

request of the son of Irakli, pronounced Gruzia, or

Georgia, to be united to the empire.

English India
the

was

to

be

The expedition made by two different

to

against
routes
In-

command

of a Russian army, destined for the

Upper

dus by way of Khiva and Bokhara, was given

In January, Orlof-Denisof,
ceived letters from Paul,
"

Knorring.

Ataman of desiring him

the
to

Don

Cossacks, re-

begin his movement

on Orenburg.

The English

are preparing for an attack

allies,

by

the Swedes and the But it is necessary to be beforehand with them, and to attack them on their most vulnerable point, and on the side where they least expect it. It is three months' march from Orenburg to Hindostan, and it takes another month to get from the encampments of the Don to Orenburg, making in all four months. To you and your army I confide this expedition. Assemble therefore your men, and begin your march to Orenburg thence, by whichever of the three routes you prefer, or by all, you will go straight with your artillery to Bokhara, Khiva, the river Indus, and the English settlements in India. The troops of the country are light troops, like yours you will therefore have over them all the advantage of your artillery. Prepare everything for this campaign. Send your scouts to recon-

land and sea against

me and my

Danes

am

ready to receive them.

noitre

and repair the roads.

your recompense

All the treasures of the Indies

shall be

Such an enterprise

will cover

you with immortal

glory, will secure

you

my

good-will in pro-

1796-1801.]

PAUL

I.

265

portion to your services, will load you with riches, give an

opening to our commerce, and strike the enemy a mortal

blow."

....
which
I

" India, to

send you,

is

governed by

supreme

head, called the Great Mogul, and a

eigns.

number

of small sover-

The English

possess commercial establishments there,

which they have acquired by means of money, or conquered by force of arms. The object of this campaign is to ruin
these establishments, to free the oppressed sovereigns, to put

them with regard

that they

to

Russia in the same state of dependence

now
to

are with regard to the English,

and

finally to

secure

for ourselves

the

Be

sure

remember

that

English, and the friend

commerce of those regions you are only at war with the of all who do not give them help.
of the friendship of Rusto the

On your march you will assure men sia. Erom the Indus you will go
way you
sands of
will

Ganges.

On

the

occupy Bokhara, to prevent the natives from

going over to China.

At Khiva you

will deliver

some thouIf

my

subjects
I

who

are kept prisoners there.

it
it

you

need infantry,

will

send

to

follow

in
if

your footsteps.

There

is

no other way, but

will

be best

you can be
:

suffi-

cient for yourselves."

tion
is

In February he wrote

"

The expedi-

urgent

the earlier the better."

instructions, a little

Such were the

Denisof.

premature and inconse-

quent, that Paul sent daily with incomplete

maps

to Orlof-

These

letters

abound

in contradictions.

He

promises
to

his Cossacks all the wealth of the Indies,

and forbids them

attack princes
joins

who remain

neutral

in

the

same

line

he en-

them

to free the princes,

and

to place

them under the

to the Volga,
is

sovereignty of Russia.

To go from

the

Don

from the Ural

far

to the Indus,

from the Indus to the Ganges,

from being an easy undertaking, and he intrusts the Ataof

man, besides, with missions

letters

Paul, published
in the

These to Khiva and Bokhara. by the Russka'ia Starina, made

some noise

Russian press at the beginning of the pres-

ent quarrels with England.

286

HISTORY OF RUSSIA.

[Chap. XII.

This plan really began to be executed, as we see by the

"Memoirs

of the

Ataman Denisof," nephew

of the late Ata-

same collection. He assembled eleven regiments of Cossacks, and succeeded in crossing the Volga on
man, published
in the

the floating

ice, in

the midst of unheard-of difficulties.

This

vanguard of the great Cossack army had reached the left bank of the river, when in March, eighteen hundred and one, its
chief suddenly received the

news of the death of the Emperor,

to

and the order

to return.

The other expedition was

be composed of

thirty-five

thousand French and thirty-five thousand Russians, at whose head Paul, with noble and chivalrous feeling, insisted on placing the victor of Zurich, Massena.

The

thirty-five

thousand

French were

to start

from the banks of the Rhine,, descend the

Danube in ships furnished them by the Austrian government, embark at the mouth in Russian ships, which would transport them to Taganrog, then go up the Don as far as Piati-Isbanska'ia, cross the Volga at Tsaritsuin, drop down as far as Astrakhan, and thence, navigating the Caspian in Russian vessels,
arrive at Asterabad on the Persian shore,

where the

thirtv-five

thousand Russians would await them.

The combined army march by way of Herat, Ferah, and Kandahar to the Upper Indus, and begin the war against the English.
was then
to

This project, on the margin of which are scrawled the

criti-

cisms of Bonaparte and the reply by the Emperor of Russia,

enters into the

most minute

details.
fifty-five

Twenty days were

reck-

oned
and

to descend the
forty-five

Danube,
at

days to reach Asterabad,

to arrive
all,

the Indus, or one

to

hundred and
Aerosticians,

twenty days in
artificers,

from the Rhine

Scinde.

to

and a body of savants such as went to Egypt, were accompany the expedition. The French government was
send precious objects,
the produce of the national
in-

to

dustry.
" Distributed with tact
tries,

among

the princes

of these counto the

and offered with the grace and courtesy natural

1796-1801.]

PAUL

I.

267

French," says the Russian note, " these gifts will enable these races to form the highest idea of the magnificence of French
industry and power, and will in consequence open an important branch

of commerce."

To

inspire the people with

the

most exalted conception of France and Russia, brilliant fetes were to be given, accompanied by such military evolutions
" as celebrate in

Paris great events

to

and memorable epochs."

to

Paul the First seemed

of the Revolution.
It

be reconciled

the anniversaries

does not appear that Paul ever doubted the success of

this

hazardous expedition.
:

Bonaparte
that

naturally
to

made

this

objection

" Supposing the

combined army
it

be reunited at

Asterabad,

how do you propose

should get to India

through countries almost barbarous, and without any resources,

having to march a distance of three hundred leagues, from

Asterabad

to the frontiers of

Hindostan

"

The Tsar

replied

that these countries were neither barbarous nor arid, that car-

avans traversed them every year and

thirty-five or forty days,

made

the journey in

and

that in seventeen

hundred and

and seventeen hundred and forty Nadir Shah had marched through the reverse way, from Delhi to the Caspian. Paul ended by saying " The French and Russian armies are
thirty-nine
:

eager for glory

they are brave, patient, and unwearied; their

courage, their perseverance, and the

will

wisdom

of their leaders

know how

to

surmount

all

obstacles

What

a really

army did in seventeen hundred and thirty-nine and seventeen hundred and forty, we cannot doubt that an army " of French and Russians can do to-day On the Continent, Paul did his best to make Prussia declare against England. The League of Neutrality made the
Asiatic
!

British

government so

uneasy,

that,

notwithstanding

the
fleet

peace, Admirals Parker and

in the naval battle of

Nelson seized the Danish

Copenhagen, on the second of April,

eighteen hundred and one.

An

event

still

more extraordinary

broke up the coalition.

263

HISTORY OF RUSSIA.

[Chap. XII.

On

the night of the twenty-third of March, eighteen hun-

dred and one, the Emperor was assassinated.

Paul's capricious wilfulness

For sonic time

of authority

and

his violent acts

had tended to alienate those who were associated with him. There was no one who felt safe about himself or his friends.

The Russian
for war, first

nobility secretly disapproved of his eager desire

with France, and afterwards with England, the

rupture of friendly relations with which,

to the export of corn,

by putting a stop
affected

hemp, and other raw products,

most seriously the income of the landed proprietors. Many times Paul had used threatening language against his wife and his oldest son, Alexander, and he was charged with the
intention of annulling his edict of inheritance, and of chang-

ing the order of succession.

to the notion of a revolution

The Court became accustomed

which should
life,

result in depriving

him

of his crown, though not of his

and of calling Alexat

ander to the throne.

Count Panin,

at

one time minister

Berlin, often discussed this project with Alexander,

and grad-

ually overcame his scruples.

He

soon found the

man who
a

was needful

for the execution of his design.

Count Pahlen,
capital,
it.

Livonian noble, became the soul of the conspiracy, and took

advantage of his position as governor of the

of the police, to conceal

and chief

the development of

The bold

frankness of his answers calmed whatever suspicions the Tsar

feel. One day Paul asked him point-blank if he remembered what took place in seventeen hundred and sixty-

might
two.
''

" Yes, sire,

to

was sergeant of the guard

to

at

that time."

They seem

be going

begin again to-day," said the

Em-

peror,

handing him a note which revealed some particulars of

" Sire,
T

the plot.
to find out

was aware of the

enemies,
I

fact,

and

in

order better

who were your

have

felt it

my

duty myto Sabluto execute

self to play the

part of a conspirator."

kof's account, Pahlen's

mode

of action

According was rigorously

the Emperor's most absurd orders, so as to increase the

num-

ber of his enemies.

If

he heard any one complain of Paul, he

lluLIita,i

1796-1801.]

PAUL

I.

269
,

looked him straight in the eye, and said simply, " The He fanned Alexander's speaks, the wise man acts."
suspicions against his father and Paul's hatred of his son.

He

won

Taluizin, Colonel of the Preobrazhenski,

of the

and many young

officers

guard

moreover, in

this

conspiracy against

Paul were several names famous in the conspiracy against they were the children of the first regicides, Peter the Third
;

the " Epigonoi " of seventeen hundred and sixty-two.

associated with

Pahlen
of re-

him

the Hanoverian Bennigsen, a

man

markable boldness and energy.

One day Pahlen was asked

:

what would be the result if the Emperor refused to abdicate " You must break your eggs when you want to make an omeUnworthy elements also were mingled in let," was his reply.
this conspiracy
:

Platon Zubof, Catherine's

sister,

last

favorite,

his

brother Nikolai, their

who was hand

arid glove

with the

English party, and on terms of familiarity with the British

embassy, together with courtiers

who had grown wealthy on

the spoils of Poland during the preceding reign,

that erty

and feared propwhose Paul would make them reimburse the Poles, they had. Paul had just disgraced Rostoptchin and banof

them devotedly attached to him. When he reconsidered his sentence and wrote them to return, he was already in the power of his enemies. it was too late On the twenty-third of March Paul sent an order to his minister in Berlin to put a stop to the indecision of Prussia by threatening the King with war, and Pahlen had the boldness " His to add the following postscript in his own handwriting
ished Araktcheef, both
;
:

imperial

majesty

is

not well

to-day

his

illness

may have

important results."

guard of the Semenovski,

won

over to

That evening the palace was under the many of whose officers had been While the conspirators went to the the plot.

Emperor's chamber, Pahlen was on the watch, ready, it is said by some narrators, himself to hand them over to Paul should
the plot
fail.

Bennigsen, sword in hand, presented Paul an

act of abdication to sign; a struggle ensued, the

lamp which

270
lighted the

HISTORY OF RUSSIA.
room
fell,

[Chap. XII.

and

in the

darkness Paul the First was

to the floor by Nikolai Zubof or by Prince Iashvil, and strangled with an officer's scarf. On the twenty-fourth of March Alexander, who had not expected this terrible event, was proclaimed Emperor.

thrown

England could not help being satisfied by the simultaneous news of the destruction of the Danish fleet and the terrible death of the Tsar, who was the soul of the coalition. In Prance the consternation was great. Bonaparte, who saw the
downfall of his vast projects, could not contain himself.

He

caused the following

land,
to

lines, full of

rage and hate against Eng-

be

printed

in

the

Moniteur,

making himself the

mouthpiece of an absurd suspicion: "It is for history to char up the secret of this tragic death, and to say what national policy was interested in provoking such a catastrophe."

THE DEATH OF PAUL ANNOUNCED TO ALEXANDER

CHAPTER

XIII.

ALEXANDER THE
War

FIRST FOREIGN AFFAIRS.

:

1801-1825.
First
Austerlitz, Eylau, Eriedland, and with Napoleon Treaty of Tilsit. Interview at Erfurt Wars with England, Sweden, Austria, Turkey, and Persia. Grand Duchy of Warsaw: Causes of the Second War with Napoleon. The " Patriotic War" Battle of Borodino; Burning of Moscow; Destruction of the Grand Army. Campaigns of Germany and Prance: Treaties of Kingdom of Poland: Congresses at Aix-laVienna and Paris. Chapelle, Carlsbad, Laybach, and Verona.

FIRST

WAR WITH NAPOLEON

AUSTERLITZ, EYLAU, FRIEDLAND, AND TREATY OF TILSIT.

:

11HE

Emperor Alexander, who was now about twenty-five He was years old, was warmly welcomed to the throne. distinguished for his liberal ideas, but at the same time Soon indecision of character was his prevailing weakness.
Count Pahlen, who tried to treat Alexander as an inferior, was disgraced, and his dismissal was soon followed by that of Zubof and Panin, the conspirators who had murdered Paul. Alexander then took three young
after his

accession

men

into his especial

confidence,

Paul
whom

Strogonof, Novo-

siltsof,

and
to

Adam
all

Tchartoruiski,
fearing
his

Paul

had sent as
his

minister

Sardinia,

influence

upon

son.

These three were

with illusions.

filled

with generosity, and perhaps even

Associated with them was Prince Kotchubey,

an older man,

who had

seen more of the world, and was well

272

HISTORY OF RUSSIA.

[Chap. XIII.

calculated to temper their impetuosity by his cooler reason.

With
of

the

new

reign, therefore,
his
to

began a new foreign

policy.

Immediately

after

accession Alexander addressed a letter

reconciliation

George the Third.

He

ordered

the

embargo on English vessels to be raised, and the sailors who had been captured to be set at liberty; he also entreated Admiral Parker to cease hostilities against Denmark. Those acts announced the dissolution of the League of Neutrality. On the seventeenth of July, eighteen hundred and one, a compromise was agreed upon by which England consented to define more strictly what articles should be understood to be
contraband
before
it

in war,

admitted that a blockade must be

effective

could be considered binding, and gave up boarding

foreign men-of-war.

The concessions made by Russia were of a much graver kind. They consisted in the abandonment of the principles of the armed neutrality, and the disavowal of the naval policy of
Catherine the Second and Paul the First.
that the flag

Alexander allowed
;

was not

to

cover merchandise

vessels of

war

were not

to

have the right to hinder the inspection, nor even

the seizure of the merchant ships that they convoyed.

Engbe-

land restored the islands taken from the Swedes and Danes.

Denmark and Sweden,

trayed,

considering the
to

common

cause

confined

themselves

making peace with Great

a

Britain without touching the disputed points.

Alexander

affected,

nevertheless,

desire

to

remain on

continue at Paris
Affairs

good terms with France, and instructed Count Markof to the negotiations begun by Koluitchef.

had gone on so rapidly under Paul,

had arranged an offensive

that

the two

States

alliance without ever having

concluded a formal treaty of peace.

The

First Consul

was
to

greatly irritated at the abrupt change in

the Russian

policy.

On

the other hand, the instructions given

by Alexander
who,
" in

Markof

breathed

defiance

towards

Bonaparte,

by

flattering the deceased

Emperor, had chiefly

view the use

1801-1825.]

ALEXANDER

L:

FOREIGN AFFAIRS.

273

of

him

as a

weapon against England, and who doubtless only

thought of gaining time."

Bonaparte, however, sent Duroc to represent
ander's coronation.

assuring

him

of his

him at AlexHe received Count Markof courteously, esteem for Alexander, but he made him

understand that the situation was no longer the same, and that Russia had not the right to exact so much from France.
"

My

obligations

towards the

Emperor

Paul,

whose great

and magnanimous ideas corresponded perfectly with the views of France, were such that I should not have hesitated to Fie complained become the lieutenant of Paul the First."
that Russia insisted on such unimportant trifles as that of the
" little

kinglet "

of

Sardinia,

and that

it

wished

to

treat

France "

like the republic of

Lucca."

In his demands in favor of the King of Sardinia, Alexander

that he had not the support of England, which, while negotiating for peace, had advised Cornwallis " not to embarfelt

rass himself with questions foreign to purely British interests."

On

the eighth of October, then, a treaty was signed between

France and Russia, and on the eleventh of October there was

a secret convention, of which the seven principal articles were
as follow
:

The common mediation

of the

two powers

for the
;

Germanic
an agree-

indemnities stipulated by the Peace of Luneville

ment about

Italian

affairs

the mediation of Russia for the

;

establishment of a peace between France and Turkey

the

independence of Naples, and the evacuation of

nity to the

its
;

territory

by the French, after the latter had evacuated Egypt an indemKing of Sardinia "according to present circum;

stances "

a suitable indemnity to the sovereigns of Bavaria,

;

Wiirtemberg, and Baden

the Ionian Isles.

independence and neutrality of

The two parties also bound themselves to do all that lay in power to strengthen the general peace, to re-establish the equilibrium of the different parts of the world, and to insure
their
liberty of navigation.
VOL.
II.

18

274

HISTORY OF RUSSIA.
treaty

[Chap. XIII.

The

of

the

eighth

of

October

followed
to

that of
that of

Luneville between

France and Austria, and led

It

Amiens with England.

and Russia
mediation
affairs,

secured the dictatorship of France

in the regulation of continental affairs.

Common
in

for

the indemnities,

and

joint

action

Italian

these were the principles that the late Tsar

;

would
have

have wished to see prevail

but circumstances were changed.

Out

of regard for

Paul

the First,

Bonaparte

might

renounced Piedmont, Naples, and

Baltic

Italy,

but Paul the First

fought for the liberty of the seas, threatened England in the

and India, and assured the revenge of the French

against Great Britain.

The

first

act of

Alexander had been,

reconciliation

on the contrary,
with England.

to desert his allies,

and seek a
the

In

the

regulation of

German
If

affairs

will

of France

naturally preponderated.
ions

Bonaparte increased the domin-

of

the

houses of

Bavaria,
related

Wiirtemberg,
to

Baden,

and

Darmstadt, which were

Russia,
it

the

imperial

family of

was doubtless
all

partly with a view to pleasing Alex-

ander, but above

fidelity

because he wished to recompense their

alliance.
It

to

the

French

was the influence of

be seen
in

France, and not that of Russia, that was increased on the

left

bank of the Rhine.

five,

This was plainly to

eighteen hundred and

to

when

all

these princes hastened

conclude separate treaties with France, which already an-

nounced the Confederation of the Rhine. For the moment was the self-esteem of Alexander that was specially it

wounded

he saw that everything was worked from Paris,

that Bonaparte

was all-powerful, and that his envoy, Markof,

after they

was sought by the German princes only

court to Talleyrand.

had paid

In Italy the question of the indemnity to the King of Sardinia

dragged on slowly.
to

On

the eleventh of September,

eighteen hundred and two, Bonaparte announced the union

of Piedmont

France, but he always

declined to

fix

the

1801-1825.]

ALEXANDER

I.

FOREIGN AFFAIRS.

275
suggested

equivalent which he promised to give.

He

at first

then had given them to an Infanta no longer offered anything beyond Siena, Orbitello, and a pension of five hundred thousand livres, saying, " As much money as you like, but nothing more " and again, " This affair ought not to interest the Emperor

Parma and

Piacenza,

of Spain.

He

Alexander more than the

First Consul."

affairs

of Persia interest me,

the

In Switzerland, in that Helvetia through which Suvorof had

hoped

to

march

as victor,
title

it

the law, accepting the

was Bonaparte who laid down of mediator, and occupying canIt

is

tons troubled by intestine discords.

true that in the

civil

Ionian Islands, ceaselessly agitated by small

a Russian plenipotentiary

wars,

it

was
the

who

arrived to appease the popular

of

excitement,
constitution.

while

the

Emperor

Russia

guaranteed

The Peace
to

of

Amiens was on the eve

to offer its

of being broken, and,

hinder the rupture between Prance and England, Russia

mediation.
It

would have wished

feared above

everything the French occupation of Naples and Hanover.

meant the humiliation of another Hanover would bring the French very near to the Elbe and Hamburg. The fears of Alexander were realized. In a war against England,
of Naples
Italian client of

The occupation

Russia

the occupation of

Bonaparte could not neglect such important points.

Saint Cyr occupied Tarento, Otranto, and Brindisi
;

Gouvion
Mortier

invaded Hanover and

got a loan from

Hamburg; Holland
in

and Tuscany were also garrisoned with French troops and July, eighteen hundred and three.

June

The choice of Markof as the Russian representative at Paris had not been happy. Like almost all the Russian aristocracy, he alike hated new France, the Revolution, and Bonaparte.

He

was the declared friend of the emigres at the very moment when the royalist plots were putting the life of the First
Consul
in danger.

His Austrian sympathies were notorious.

27G

HISTORY OF RUSSIA.
proved
to

[Chap. XIII.

He

be proud, excessively obstinate, and even imper-

the consular court and all the diplomatic body went into mourning on the death of General Leclerc, Bonatinent.

When

parte's brother-in-law, he alone declined to wear it. He was compromised by the seizure of some pamphlets published

against the government, his

of the
list

name being found

had the audacity
will,

at

the head

of subscribers.
of Russia

He

to say, "

The

Emperor
theirs."

has his

but the people also have

refused to recall him, in

The Russian government

spite of Talleyrand's declaration

that since the renewal of the

war with England

plained also of

" the presence of so ill-disposed a

to the

man was

more than unpleasant

protected by Russia
lonne, at Paris, of

First Consul."

Bonaparte comintrigues were

some French emigres whose

:

of Christin, formerly secretary to

at

Caat

Vernegues
after

Rome,

of D'Entraigues

Dresden.

At

last,

an angry scene in which Napoleon

entirely forgot his dignity,

Tuileries,
ever,

and was

finally

recalled.

Markof appeared no more at the The French were, how-

no better contented
seizure

with D'Oubril,

who remained
in

at

Paris as charge d'affaires.

The

and execution of the Due d'Enghien

March,

eighteen hundred and four, increased the misunderstanding

between the two cabinets.

The news

of this

murder reached
;

Saint Petersburg on the eve of a diplomatic reception

the reception itself took place, the

when

Emperor and

all

his court

were

in

mourning.

Alexander passed General Hedouville,

D'Oubril

the French ambassador, without speaking to him.

presented to the French government a note protesting against

the violation of the law of nations and
of neutral territory.

Alexander, in his character as Guarantee of the

pire, a title

which had been conferred on the Russian

Diet at Ratisbon, which

German EmEm-

peror at the Treaty of Tcschen, caused a similar note to be

laid before the

Sweden and England

the

hastened to

ratify,

but which terribly embarrassed

Diet

and

all

the

Germanic body.

Bonaparte replied by recalling

1801-1825.]

ALEXANDER

L:

FOREIGN AFFAIRS.

277

Hedouville.

He

replied officially to D'Oubril's note

plaining of the unfriendly acts

by comof the Russian government

agents, of the embarrassfor

towards him, of the

ing situation which

ill-will
it

of

all its

sought to create
;

France by everyright of

where patronizing the emigres

Russia to interfere
that in the affair
in
in

he contested the

self-defence.
to

Germany, and declared of Ettenheim the government had acted only " The complaint made by Russia to-day
the affairs of
if,

compels us

ask

when England meditated

the assassina-

tion of Paid

the First,

men had been aware

that the authors

of the conspiracy were lurking within a league from the frontiers,

they would not have hastened to capture them

"

After

such an
selves

interchange of

letters,
all

the charges d'affaires them-

were recalled, and

diplomatic relations broken.

;

Napoleon had just been crowned Emperor

at

he had taken

Italy, united Genoa to the French terriand modified the constitution of Holland. From the camp at Boulogne he threatened England, but a coalition was

Milan the crown of

tory,

already formed against him.

favorite ministers, in
left

Novosiltsof, one of Alexander's

September, eighteen hundred and four,

special

for

London with
;

instructions
all

drawn up by the
still

Emperor

we

find

in

them

kinds of Utopian schemes,

cherished

sometimes generous, often incoherent, which he

at this epoch.

He

proposes to wrest from the French,

who

gave themselves out as the champions of liberty,

this illusion,

which was a dangerous weapon of propaganda

dinia
to render

;
.

to give to the

troubled world a good example by restoring the

;

King

of Sar-

back

to

Switzerland and Holland the liberty

;

to choose

their

own

rulers

to

declare to the

French,

who

would gladly welcome the

allies,

that the war was

directed,

not against them, but against their government, from which

they suffered as severely as the rest of Europe. In this note

Alexander renewed the question of the reconstitution of Europe

:

taking count of natural frontiers, of crests of mountains,

of groups of nationalities,

he

added a scheme

for the

par-

278
tit

HISTORY OF RUSSIA.
Ottoman Empire,
received

[Chap. XIII.

ion of the

in the case of its existence be-

coming incompatible with the present state of Europe.

British

Cabinet

these

The communications somewhat

coldly, but on the eleventh of April, eighteen hundred and five, concluded a treaty in which it was agreed to drive the

French

from

Northern

Germany,

to

declare

Holland

and

Switzerland independent, and bring about a state of things

which

would secure universal peace.

England, moreover,

promised a yearly subsidy in the proportion of six hundred

and twenty-five thousand pounds for every one hundred thousand men put under arms by Russia. Austria was Sweden and Naples entered the coalition
;

already attacking Bavaria, the ally of Napoleon.

Alexander

wished

to assure himself also of Frederic

William the Third,

who was always constantly vacillating between France and Russia, and who had undertaken engagements towards both.

He

went

to Berlin

so as to use his personal influence,

and

thought to gain Frederic by announcing that his army was

about to cross Silesia and Pomerania
;

but the King of Prussia

instantly mobilized his troops, to cause his neutrality to be

respected.

The

violation of

the territories of

Anspach and

Baireuth by the French soon changed the course of his ideas.

During

his visit

Alexander had
the

his

famous interview, near the

tomb

of Frederic

Great, with the

King and Queen

of

Prussia.
coffin lav,

They went by torchlight into the vault where the and knelt before it. Alexander was moved to tears,
his friend to his

and clasping
him.

By
its

the Treaty of

bosom promised never to desert Potsdam Prussia undertook to furnish

the coalition
if

eighty thousand
accept

men

to

Napoleon did not

ultimatum.

The ultimatum

stipulated for the inde-

pendence of Germany and

King
to

of Sardinia.

Italy, and the indemnity to the was ordered to carry it Haugwitz Baron

Napoleon.

Dining these negotiations the Russian army was put in motion. Behind the three great Austrian armies, led by the

1801-1825.]

ALEXANDER

I.:

FOREIGN AFFAIRS.

279

Archduke Charles in Italy, the Archduke John in the Tyrol, and Mack with the Archduke Ferdinand against Bavaria, were
ranged the Russian troops.
Besides
the

twenty thousand

who were to join the Swedes and disemand the twenty thousand under Admiral Seniavin, who were to join the English and disembark at Naples, there were the troops who guarded the frontiers of Turkey and Prussia, and the great German army. The latter had as
men under
bark
Tolstoi,
at Stralsund,
its

vanguard Kutuzof, who, with

forty-five

thousand men,

hastened to the Inn to unite with Mack.

the

In Moravia, wdiere

Emperor was

in person, strong forces

were gathering under

his three

the orders of Buxhcevden.

ministers,

Alexander had with him

there,

Tchartoruiski, Novosiltsof,

the

Imperial

Guard was

and Strogonof.
Horse

All

the

Guards, the

Knights, the Preobrazhenski, the Semenovski, the Ismailovski, the Pavlovski,

and the flower of the army.

Kutuzof had already reached Braunau on the Inn, where

he learned the capitulation of Ulm, and the annihilation of

Mack's army, on the nineteenth of October, eighteen hundred

and

five.

Pie found his

own

position very critical, being at a

great distance from the

lent troops,
tion,

main body.

He had

under him excel:

and three admirable lieutenants

Prince Bagra-

one of the heroes of the campaign of seventeen hundred

favorite pupil of old Suvorof
;

and ninety-nine, the

the intrepid
leader

Dokturof,

of

the

grenadiers

Miloradovitch, sur-

Murat of the Russian army, and of whom it was " said, Whoever wishes to follow Miloradovitch must have a spare life." To escape being cut off on the right bank of the Danube by Murat's cavalry, by Oudinot and by Lannes, and on the left bank by the corps of Mortier, Kutuzof retreated, giving battle to Oudinot at Lambach and at Amstetten in November, eighteen hundred and five. He then crossed the Danube at Krems, fought the battle of Dirnstein with Mortier, and marched to the north to join the great Russian army. The surprise of the bridge of Vienna by Lannes and Murat

named

the

280

HISTORY OF RUSSIA.
left

[Chap. XIII.

endangered him on his

via.

flank during his retreat into

Mora-

To

save his army, he had to sacrifice his rear-guard.

The

tenacious Bagration was charged to check the pursuit of

the French.

He

intrenched himself at Ilollabrunn and Schonfirst,

graben.

Murat came up

and desired
;

to gain time in

order to allow Lannes to join him

Bagration wished to give

Kutuzof time to escape. He received Murat's envoy favorably, and sent to propose an armistice in the name of the Tsar.

Ten hours passed while they awaited the answer of Napoleon. The latter, furious at Murat's credulity, sent orders that he
was
to attack immediately.

Bagration's ten thousand

men

fought desperately during twelve hours.

retreated,

having

lost

At night Bagration two thousand men and all his guns.

Kutuzof, who had been saved by his devotion, embraced him, and exclaimed, " You live, and that is enough for me." The junction of Kutuzof, Buxhcevden, and the Austrians

took place at Olmi'itz, and Napoleon was concentrating his

forces at Briinn.

He had

collected about seventy thousand

men. the Emperors of Russia and Austria about eighty thou-

The greatest exultation reigned in the Russian headquarters. The young Emperor and his young officers, proud
sand.
of the

splendid battles fought by Kutuzof and

of the

Bagration,

spoke with profound contempt

Austrians,

who had
;

allowed themselves to be so easily trapped at

Ulm

they had

only hatred and disdain for " Buonaparte the Corsican,"

who

owed
ity of

his

victories to

the imbecility of his adversaries.

small success of the vanguard at Wischau, the apparent timid-

Napoleon, and the arrival of General Savary

as envoy,

completely turned their heads.

Alexander sent

the

young

Prince Dolgoruki to the French headquarters, with a note It was necesaddressed to the " head of the French nation."
sary,

said the

Prince to

Napoleon, that

the French should

If they

abandon

Italy, if they

wanted immediate peace.

were

vanquished, they would have to lose not only the Rhine, but

Piedmont, Savov, and Belgium, which would be formed into

t^SflfeKS^"-"-

THE RAMPARTS OF ULM.

"

1801-1825.]

ALEXANDER

I:

FOREIGN AFFAIRS.
Brussels also
?

2S1
exclaimed
people are
if I

barriers against them.

"What!

"

Napoleon, and coldly dismissed

him.

" These

mad," he
!

said.

"

What would

they do with France

were

defeated " It is difficult," relates a Russian eyewitness, Zhirkievitch, the lieutenant of artillery, " to picture the enthusiasm that ani-

mated us

all,

accompanied

and the strange and ridiculous infatuation that It seemed to us that we this noble sentiment.
to Paris.

were going straight

Dolgoruki, a young
self to

No

one spoke of anything but

man

of twenty-five,

who

presented himall

Napoleon with

a letter from the Emperor, and

admired the cleverness of the superscription, in which the It imperial title of Napoleon had been so skilfully avoided.

was even added

hat.

that

when Dolgoruki gave

passed,

the letter to

Napo-

leon, as the latter

remained covered, Dolgoruki replaced his

few

days

and our ideas became greatly

changed."

the Ausand approved was trian, by Alexander, that Bagration on the right should keep Lannes in check the two Imperial guards
;

One scheme, conceived by Weirother

would be
were
to

sufficient to

watch the plateau of Pratzen

Dokturof,

Langeron, Przhebishevski, even Kutuzof and Miloradovitch,

descend into the valley of Goldbach
to

meet Napo-

leon, cut

him

off

from the Danube, and force him back on the

mountains of Bohemia.

The evening before the battle it was still believed that Napoleon would retreat. Dolgoruki recommended his soldiers " to watch well which way the French retired." On the morning of the second of December, eighteen hundred and five, the valley of Goldbach was covered by a fog, from the waves of which emerged, as from the bosom of a milky sea,
the mountain heights which were gilded by the early rays of
the sun
;

on the west lay the peaks of Schlapanitz, -where

his position
;

Napoleon had taken up

leon distinctly

on the

east, the

hills of

Pratzen, where the allied emperors were encamped.

Napo-

saw the Russian columns descend the plateau

2S2
of Pratzen, and

HISTORY OF RUSSIA.
disappear in the fog
;

[Chap. XIII.

Lakes Sokolnitz, Satchan, and Menitz

right

and from the side of

that
is

to say, to his

lie

heard the noise of their

certain that, as

artillery

carriages.
allies

He
in-

was therefore

he had foreseen, the

tended to attack this wing.

the centre of the
bare, he

When

the plateau of Pratzen,

Russian army, seemed to him sufficiently

In twenty minutes the corps of

gave the signal.

Soult scaled the slopes in heavy masses, and attacked Kutuzof and Miloradovitch, whose divisions alone remained on the plateau. There a desperate battle was fought. The Emperor
of Russia found himself under
fire,

his

men were

dispersed,

and he himself was obliged to retire at a gallop, attended only

by

his

doctor, a single orderly,

to the right of the plateau the

and two Cossacks. A little Grand Duke Konstantin, the

to

Emperor's brother, with the guards, tried

alry of

oppose the cav-

Murat and the French guards. It was an epic struggle, where fought on one side the famous Russian regiments of the foot guards, the horse guards, the flower of the Russian nobility, the uhlans,

the chasseurs of the guard, the Cos;

sacks,

and the
of

cuirassiers of Liehtenstein

on the other, the

Mamelukes

Rapp, the mounted grenadiers of Bessieres,

the light cavalry of Kellermann, the cuirassiers of Ilaufpoul

At the extreme right of the Russians, Bagration could easily beat a retreat before Lannes but on their left, the columns of Dokturof, Langeron, and Przhebishevski, entangled in the network of lakes, engaged since morning by
and of Nansouty.
;

the corps of Davoust, and suddenly attacked in their rear by the victorious troops returning from the plateau of Pratzen,

found themselves

in

a frightful

situation

Buxhoevden was

hard pressed near a frozen lake which some of the infantry

tried to cross.

and many Russians perished.

the
it

The French broke the ice with their artillery The French at first reported number drowned to be twenty thousand, but afterwards
to

was reduced

two thousand.

Dokturof protected the

re-

treat.

Tchartoruiski wrote the Tsar, "

The

feeling through-

1801-1825.]

ALEXANDER

I.:

FOREIGN AFFAIRS.

283

out the whole array at this

avenging the insult

The RusWithout reckoning the Austrian loss, their own amounted to twenty-one thousand men, two hundred cannons, and thirty flags. They were furious against their allies. As happened after the battle of Zurich,
battle of the three emperors."

away as soon as Such was " the

fell

not of the need of had received, but rather a desire to so possible and consider the war at an end."
it

moment was

sians

back on Austerlkz.

they accused them of incapacity, and even of treason.

the Austrians
fighting in

It
;

was

who had sketched the plan of the battle and, their own country, on ground which they had

studied at leisure in their manoeuvres on parade, they had not

succeeded in either arranging their troops to advantage or in

providing forage and ammunition.
the Emperor, remarks
rather in a
:

Dolgoruki, in a report to

way

to

They conducted your majesty's army deliver it to the enemy than to fight and
;

"

what puts the

finishing touch to this infamy

is,

that the dispofact of

sition of our forces

was known
"

to the

enemy, a

which

we have

certain

proof."

Rostoptchin, in a letter to Prince

Tsitsianof, echoes

him

communicated

to

Bonaparte

The plan had been treacherously forty-eight hours before we were

;

ready, the latter

began the attack

at

break of day.

From

the beginning, half of the Austrians took

half crossed over to the

up arms

the other

enemy, and some even

the

fired

on us."

On

the fourth of

December

Emperor Francis of Austria

had an interview with Napoleon, and obtained for the Russian army, which was greatly imperilled after its disaster, and was closely pressed by Davoust, leave to retire, on condition that it should evacuate Hungary and Moravia within a fortnight, and Gallicia within a month. On the twenty-sixth the
Treaty of Presburg was signed, which deprived Francis the

Second of Venice, the Tyrol, and Austrian Suabia he was likewise to give up the title of Emperor. This new intervention of the Russians in Europe ended in a formidable growth
;

of French power.

On

the fifteenth of March, eighteen

hundred

284

HISTORY OF RUSSIA.

[Chap. XIII.

and six, Napoleon appointed his brother-in-law, General Joachim Mnrat, Grand Duke of Cleves and Berg. On the thirtyfirst the King of Naples was dethroned and replaced by Joseph
Bonaparte; the kingdom of Italy was increased by Venice;
the sovereigns of Bavaria, Wi'irtemberg, and Baden, strength-

ened by the spoils of Austria, decorated with the

titles

of king

and grand duke, declaring themselves independent of the

German Empire, formed, with the new Prince-Primate Charles of Dalberg, the Grand Duke of Hesse-Darmstadt, and fifteen
other sovereign princes, the Confederation of the Rhine, the

Rheinbund.
ference in

There was no longer reason

for

Russian inter-

Germany.
Baden.

Already Napoleon's family was conof the successor of

the West, could add

tracting matrimonial alliances with those of Bavaria, Wi'irtem-

berg, and

Charles the Great,

to his
fifty

The German vassals of the new Emperor of

army from one hundred thousand

thousand men.

to

one hundred and

Haugwitz, who had been ordered to

inform Napoleon of the ultimatum stipulated by the Treaty

of Potsdam, found himself at

a defiant
treaty
for

Schonbrunn in the presence of and invincible conqueror he was forced to sign a

;

which obliged Prussia to accept Hanover,

in

exchange

Anspach and Baireuth, and irrevocably brought on a war The coalition was therefore beaten in the field Russia, isolated by the ruin of and dissolved in the cabinet. Naples, the desertion of Austria, and the defection of Prussia,
with England.

found

itself

almost alone on the Continent.

It is well

known how from

this

which appeared

to attach Prussia to

same Treaty of Schonbrunn, Napoleon, sprang a new war.

The

coalition

and Prussia.
six the

was renewed between Russia, England, Sweden, The Prussians showed in eighteen hundred and

same precipitation as the Austrians in eighteen hundred and five; like them, they did not allow time for the
Russians to join them
;

and when Alexander found himself

able to undertake a second campaign, he learned the twofold

catastrophe of Jena and Auerstadt, on the fourteenth of Oeto-

1801-1825.]

ALEXANDER L: FOREIGN AFFAIRS.

2S5

had formerly learned that of Ulm. For the second time his principal ally was beaten, and the whole weight of On this occasion the disaster was the war fell upon Russia. even greater, for the Prussian monarchy ceased to exist. The
ber, as he

French occupied Berlin, and took the fortresses on the Oder and the Vistula. Nothing remained to Frederic William in
the North but three fortresses, Dantzig, Konigsberg, and Memel, and a small body of fourteen thousand
tocq.

men under

Les-

These events had followed one another with a rapidity so

startling that

Alexander found himself taken unawares.

Paris

After

Austerlitz he had tried to negotiate with Napoleon,

and sent
to the

D'Oubril

to

but D'Oubril,

who had consented

Isles,

evacuation of Cattaro and the Ionian

tion of the principle of

Ottoman integrity, at Saint Petersburg, like Haugwitz at Berlin. Russia found itself in a terrible plight and it had in addition the prospect of a double war against Persia and Turkey. Tchartoruiski,
;

and the recognihad been disavowed

Minister of Foreign Affairs, addressed a memorial to the

peror, counselling

Em-

vulnerable points,

Poland, and
all

peace.

He showed

that

Russia had two

the serfage of the peasants.

costs, for

Invasion must be avoided at

the invader

would

not

fail

to

proclaim the re-establishment of Poland, and the

serfs.

freedom of the

It

was of
if

little

consequence that Ger-

many was
to pass the

subject to Napoleon,

the latter would consent not

It

Weser

or even the Elbe.

was necessary

to con-

sent to the evacuation of Cattaro

antee only Sicily to the

sort of an

indemnity

to

and the Ionian Isles, to guarKing of Naples, and to obtain some the King of Sardinia. It would be

better to secure the co-operation of Napoleon for regulating

the affairs of Turkey.

safety of the empire.

Only one thing was important, the

at this

But Alexander, secure of Prussia, which was

still

moment

intact, inclined to war.

He commanded

new

conscrip-

tion

of one

man

in

every hundred, lowered the regulation

2S6

HISTORY OF RUSSIA.

[Chap. XIII.

height one inch, ordered muskets even from private manufacturers and foreigners, created

dents and young

after six
terrible

nobles, promising

months' service, for

new regiments, summoned stuthem the grade of officer the fight at Pratzen had made

havoc with the guards.

of,

plan of organizing militia

six

was talked

which would have given them

hundred and
to

twelve thousand men.

The

priests

were ordered

proclaim

everywhere that war was made,

the salvation of the country."
of six million sterling.

" not for vainglory, but for

England was asked for a loan An appeal was once more made to
for.
;

Austria.

When

Prussia was crushed, the fourteen thousand

Prussians of Lestocq were sent

of sixty thousand

Buxheevden had twenty-eight thousand men another army men was confided to Bennigsen, a learned
of boundless energy,

man

who had been one

had

of the conspiraa

tors of

eighteen hundred and one, and

tactics.

considerable

genius for

He

has, however, been reproached with

indecision at the critical

moment, with neglecting

;

discipline,

and not being able to repress pillage

respect even his headquarters or his
fects

the marauders did not

own

house.

These de-

were, however, partially atoned for by a tenacity which

astonished Napoleon.

The

old field-marshal Kamenski, nomiall

nated generalissimo, had

Vistula.

concentrated

his forces

on the

When his infirmities obliged him to resign his command, Bennigsen succeeded him. Murat, Davoust, and Lannes had entered Warsaw, which was then a Prussian possession, and had established themselves on the Bug, forming the right of the Grand Army. Soult and Augereau crossed the Vistula at Modlin, and formed the centre on the left Ney and Bernadotte occupied Thorn and Elbing. In the rear Mortier acted in Pomerania Lefebvre besieged Dantzig; and Jerome against the Swedes
;
;

Bonaparte, with

Vandamme,

finished

the conquest of Silesia.

to

Pressed by the Grand

ate

Army, Bennigsen was obliged

at

evacu-

Poland, after some severe fighting, especially

Pultusk

1801-1825.]

ALEXANDER

L:

FOREIGN AFFAIRS.

2S7

on December twenty-six, and retired by way of Ostrolenka, leaving in the mud of Poland eighty field-pieces and nearly
ten thousand
berg.

men

he stopped on the Alle to cover Konigs-

the Grand Army was reposing in Winter was at hand camp, when Bennigsen conceived the audacious project of moving his left wing, passing between the two forces of Bernadotte and Ney, crushing Bernadotte, and forcing Ney into of relieving Dantzig and carrying the war into the sea
:

Brandenburg on the

rear of Napoleon.

Bernadotte, however,
that

resisted so stubbornly at

Mohrungen and Osterode,

Napo-

leon had time to come up, and Bennigsen himself was on the point of having his left wing turned, and seeing his lines of

communication

warned him of it was necessary to sound a retreat, and Bathe risk he ran As at Schongraben, gration was again called on to protect it. lie covered himself with glory, and allowed himself to be sachis " incomparable regirificed for the salvation of the army " and he himself annihilated, was almost ment of Kostroma During this time Bennigsen marched to severely wounded.
cut.
;

An

intercepted despatch

Eylau and took up a position to the east of the town, on a line of heights which extended from Schloditten to Serpallen behind his centre lay the village of Sansgarten his front was
;

covered by two hundred and

fifty

pieces of cannon.

When

Napoleon arrived

at Eylau,

which was taken on the

Soult, Augerean,
to

seventh of February, he had with

him only

Murat, and the guard

wing, and Ney,

Davoust,
to

who was
left

form his right

who was
his
side,

form his

wing, and
still

who had
wanting.

been delayed by
Bennigsen, on his
his right

pursuit of Lestocq, were

awaited Lestocq,
battle,

who was

to

compose

wing.

The

however, began on February

eighth, eighteen

hundred and seven, and was one of the the century. A thick snow was falling, which bloodiest of the sky was of ever and anon hid the battle-field from sight
;

a livid gray; the landscape was as gloomy as the result of the

2S3
action.

HISTORY OF RUSSIA.
The
all

[Chap. XIII.

lasted

day.

the town of
less

began by a formidable cannonade, which The French, sheltered by the buildings of Evlau, and disposed in thin lines, suffered from it
battle

than the Russians,

who had

little

cover,

and were ranged

in

compact masses.

The corps

of

Augereau and the division

of Saint Ililaire, intrusted with the attack on the Russian left

wing, went astray, blinded by a squall of snow; when the sky

cleared, the
site the

two divisions of Augereau found themselves oppo-

Russian centre, forty paces from a battery of seventy;

two guns
his

mown down
five

at the cannon's

mouth, they

lost in

few minutes

thousand two hundred men.

two generals of division were wounded. ment an enormous mass of cavalry, uhlans, and
everything in their passage.
tre

Augereau and At the same mocuirassiers

dashed themselves against Saint Hilaire's infantry, upsetting

The
in

infantry of the Russian cen-

advanced almost

to the

cemetery of Evlau, where Napoleon

his

was standing.

Then Murat,

turn,

assembled eighty
solid squares

squadrons, and led against this infantry the most frightful

charge mentioned in the annals of these wars

Avere

broken by his cuirassiers.

to fire at

watch and
ress
till

Davoust

at

The two armies continued to each other, but the battle made little proglast joined the right wing of the French
left

army, turned the Russian

centre,

and threw

it

back upon the

and reached Sansgarten on

their rear.

The Prussians
the darkness of

of Lestocq arrived in their turn at the other extremity of the

line,

but they were followed by Ney,

who
to

in

night, at half past nine o'clock,

began

break Bennigsen's

right wing.

rounded.

The Russians now ran the risk of being surThey had suffered cruel losses one of their divisions, that of Count Ostermann Tolstoi', counted no more than twenty-five hundred men. "The general in chief," says M.
:

Bogdanovitch, " trembled as he read the reports of the generals of divisions."

They had not thirty thousand men under arms; twenty-six thousand were killed or wounded; among
tin'

latter

were Barclay de Tolly, Dokturof, and seven other

1801-1825.]

ALEXANDER

I.:

FOREIGN AFFAIRS.
to beat a retreat,

2S9
and

generals.

He

profited

by the darkness
Bennigsen

did not hesitate to claim as a victory what in reality had only

been a glorious

resistance.

boldly ordered the

Te Deum to be sung. The French had more

as they

right to call themselves victorious,

field

remained masters of the

of battle.

Unlike the

Russians, some of their troops were still intact, such as Ney's corps and the Foot Guards, but they had likewise suffered terSuch ribly, and a gloomy sadness hung over the survivors.
efforts, so

much blood
is

shed, so

few trophies

This melan-

choly impression

reflected

even in

Napoleon's despatch,

where he allows himself

battle-field, the

to describe the funereal aspect of the

thousands of heaped-up corpses, the gunners

killed on their pieces, " all

thrown into

relief

by a background

of snow."

Ney shrugged
hunger and

his shoulders

nage.

"

What

a massacre," he said, "

on seeing the car" and without result

!

They

suffered

cold

the

immense

spaces,

the

broken roads, the marshy plains, the

Russians,

stoical resistance of the

had disconcerted the calculations of

Napoleon.
;

Eylau gave him a foretaste of eighteen hundred and twelve

the delay of
to

Ney
The

a foretaste of Waterloo.

Fortune took care

to her
for

warn him that she would not always be punctual

effect

rendezvous.

produced on Europe was unlucky

fell.

France

in Paris the

Funds

In order to confirm his victory, reorganize his army, reassure France, re-establish the opinion of Europe, encourage the

Polish insurrection, and to curb the

Austria, Napoleon remained
tiated
:

ill-will

of

Germany and

week

at

Eylau.

He

nego-

on one side he caused Talleyrand to write to Zastrow,

alli-

the Prussian foreign minister, to propose peace and his

ance

he sent Bertram! to

Memel

to offer to re-establish the

King

of Prussia, on the condition of no foreign intervention.

He

also tried to negotiate with

Bennigsen

to

which the

latter

made answer
VOL.
II.

" that his master

had charged him

to fisdit,

and

not negotiate."

After some hesitation, Prussia ended by join19

290
ing
its

HISTORY OF RUSSIA.
fortunes to those of Russia.

[Chap. XIII.

By

the convention of

Bartenstein, of

the twenty-fifth of

April, eighteen
to

hundred

and seven, the two sovereigns came

points
:

terms on the following

The re-establishment
teen hundred of the

of Prussia within the limits of eigh-

and
;

five

the dissolution of the Confederation

to

Rhine
;

the restitution

Austria of the Tyrol and

Venice

the accession of England to the coalition, and the

the co-operation
of

aggrandizement of Hanover;

Sweden;
is

the restoration of the house of Orange, and indemnities to

the kings of Naples and Sardinia.
tant;
its

This document

importo

conditions are almost the

at the

same

as those offered

Napoleon

Congress of Prague,

in

eighteen hundred

and

thirteen.

Russia and Prussia proposed then to make a more pressing

appeal to Austria, Sweden, and England
;

but the Emperor

Francis was naturally undecided, and the Archduke Charles,

alleging

the

state

of

the

finances

and the army, strongly

advised him against anv

new

intervention.
his fury against

Sweden was

too

weak

and notwithstanding
ministry,

Napoleon, Gusof Portland

tavus the Third had just been forced to treat with Mortier.

The English

consisting of the

Duke

with Canning and Castlereagh, showed a remarkable inability

to conceive the situation
;

they refused to guarantee the

fifty

new

Russian loan of a hundred and

millions,

and would lend

activity.

themselves to no maritime diversion.

Napoleon showed the greatest diplomatic

The

Sultan Selim the Third declared war against Russia; General

Sebastiani, the envoy at Constantinople, put the Bosphorus in

a state of defence, and repulsed the English fleet;

General

Gardane
outbreak

left

for Ispahan, with

a mission to cause a Persian

in

the

Caucasus.

Dantzig

had

capitulated,

and

Lefebvre's forty thousand

vice.
M.'issi'na

men were

therefore ready for ser-

took thirty-six thousand from Italy.

In the spring

Bennigsen,

who had been

reinforced

by ten

1801-1825.]

ALEXANDER

I.:

FOREIGN AFFAIRS.

291

thousand regular troops, six thousand Cossacks, and the Imperial Guard, being now at the head of one hundred and ten
thousand men, took the offensive the right and Bagration the left.
;

Gortchakof commanding
tried, as in the preced-

He

ing year, to seize Ney's division ; but the latter fought, as he Benretired, two bloody fights, at Gutstadt and Ankendorff.
nigsen, again in danger of being surrounded, retired on Heilsberg, where, on the tenth of June, he defended himself bravely
;

but the French, extending their line on his right, marched on The Russian Eylau, so as to cut him off from Konigsberg.
generalissimo retreated
;

but, being pressed, he

had

to

draw

up

at Friedland,

on the Alle.

The position he had taken up was most dangerous. All his army was enclosed in an angle of the Alle, with the steep bed of the river at their backs, which in case of misfortune left them only one means of retreat, over the three bridges of The French vanguard arrived at two in the mornFriedland.
ing of June fourteenth, eighteen hundred and seven,
filled

the

woods of Posthenen with sharpshooters, and held the Russians The Russian army was in check till the Emperor's arrival.
almost entirely hidden in the ravine of the Alle.
the Russians concealed ? "
"

Where
" No,

are

asked Napoleon when he came up.

:

When He
hold
" the

he had noted their situation, he exclaimed

it is

not every day that an

enemy

is

surprised in such a blunder."

placed Lannes and Victor in reserve, ordered Mortier to

Gortchakof in check on the

left

movement to be made by As to Ney, he was to cope with Bagration on the right, he was to drive like a wedge among the Russians who were shut in by the angle of the river he was to meet them in
the right the left."
;

and to remain still, as wing would turn upon

hand-to-hand
safety.

conflict,

without taking any thought of his

irresistible fury
;

own
fifty

Ney

led this charge with

the Rus-

sians

were riddled by

his artillery at

one hundred and

paces.

He

successively crushed the chasseurs of the Russian

;

guard, the Isma'ilovski regiment, and the horse guards

he

292

HISTORY OF EUSSIA.
shells,

[Chap. XIII.

burnt Friedland with his

and cannonaded the bridges,

In a quarter of an hour

which was

their only

way

of retreat.

the Ismailovski lost four hundred

men

out of five hundred

and

twenty.

Bagration,

surrounded by the grenadiers of

;

.Moscow, was obliged to cut his way through

Raievski, Iermolof, and

his lieutenants,

Baggovut, wasted their strength in

left

vain efforts.
the river.

The Russian

wing was almost thrown

on the Russian right

into

Bagration, with the Semenovski and other troops,

to cover the defeat
;

was hardly able

tchakof,

Gor-

immovable Mortier, had time only to reach the Alle, which he had to ford. Count Lambert retired with twenty-nine guns along the left bank
to attack the
;

who had advanced

the rest fled by the right bank, closely pursued by the cavalry.

Meanwhile Murat, Davoust, and

Soult,

who had
it,

taken no

part in the battle, arrived before Konigsberg.

Lestocq, with

twenty-five thousand men, tried to defend

but on learning
it.

Only one fortress now remained to Frederic the little town of Memel. The Russians lost at Friedland from fifteen thousand to twenty thousand men, besides eighty guns. Alexander, who was established at Jurburg, received a report from Bennigsen merely announcing that he had been obliged to evacuate the banks of the Alle, and that he would
the disaster of Friedland he hastily evacuated

William,

wait in a more advantageous position

till

Lobanof-Rostovski

brought him reinforcements.

thousand Kalmuiki, and
it

was

But Lobanof had only a few to these badly armed savages

that they looked for the salvation of Russia.

More

explicit

accounts reached Alexander from the Tsarevitch Konstantin

Alexander and other officers. The situation was desperate had no longer an army. Only one man, Barclay de Tolly, proposed to continue the war; but in order to do this it would be necessary to re-enter Russia, to penetrate into the very heart of the empire, to burn everything on the way, and
:

present only a desert to the enemy.

off

Alexander hoped

to get

more cheaply.

He

wrote a severe letter to Bennigsen, and

1301-1825.]

ALEXANDER
treat.

L:

FOREIGN AFFAIRS.
left

293
head-

gave him powers to

Talleyrand-Perigord.

Prince Lobanof

for the

quarters of Napoleon,

who

sent in his turn

at that

the

Captain de

Alexander had

sentiment with Napoleon,

not pardon

time a

hatred of the English.

common He did

them

either for their refusal to

guarantee a Rus-

sian loan, or for the calculated insufficiency of their diversions,

or for their mercantile selfishness.

On June
took place.
hours.

twenty-fifth the interview on the raft

at Tilsit

Alexander and Napoleon conversed

of Prussia

for nearly

two

The King

was not admitted

to a confer-

ence on which the fate of his dynasty depended.

On

horse-

back on the shore, urging his horse even into the water, he waited the result with his eyes fixed on the fateful raft.

Even the personal graces of the Queen of Prussia could not It was from " respect for the soften the severity of the treaty. Emperor of all the Russias and desire to unite the two nations " in a bond of eternal friendship," that Napoleon " consented to restore to Erederic William the Third, Old Prussia, Pomerania,

Brandenburg, and

Silesia.

These

articles of the treaty

of July eighth, eighteen hunfall

dred and seven, completed the

of Prussia.

On

the west

Napoleon took from

it all

the possessions between the Rhine

;

and the Elbe, with Magdeburg he destroyed the thrones of the allied States of Brunswick and Hesse-Cassel. On the east
he confiscated
all

Poland.

He
its

thus broke the two wings of

the Prussian Eagle.

On
its

right he established the king-

dom

of Westphalia, on

left

the grand duchy of

Warsaw.

Dantzig was declared a

part of the

free

town.

The

district Bielostok,

with one hundred and eighty-four thousand inhabitants, a

dismembered Black Russia, again became Russian soil. The estates of the Princes of Mecklenburg and Oldenburg were restored to them but they had to suffer the occu;

pation of their territory for the carrying out of the Continental

blockade, and like Saxony, the States of Thuringia and

all

the

small princes of Germany, they were obliged to accede to the

294

HISTORY OF RUSSIA.

[Chap. XIII.

Confederation of the Rhine.

the

The King

of Prussia adhered to

Continental blockade.
till

given back to him

nity.

after full

His possessions were not to be payment of a war indem-

Tilsit

Besides the conditions relative to Prussia, the Treaty of established Russian mediation between France and
:

England; French mediation between England and Turkey; the recognition by Alexander, and likewise by Frederic William the Third, of Napoleon's brother Joseph as king
of Naples, Louis as king of Holland, Jerome of Westphalia,
as well as the recognition of the Confederation of the Rhine,

and of

all

States founded

by Napoleon

and

lastly,

recip-

rocal guarantees for the integrity of the present

possessions

of Russia and France.

second treaty, with secret

;

articles, stipulated that

Cattaro

should be restored to France

that
if

France should have the

Ionian Isles in perpetuity; that

Ferdinand were deprived

of Sicily, he should have no other equivalent than the Balearic

Isles, or

Cyprus and Candia

that in this case Joseph should

be acknowledged King of the

other peoples

Two

Sicilies

that an

amnesty

should be accorded to the Montenegrins, Ilerzegovinians, and

who had
in

revolted at the call

to the

of Russia; that

if

Hanover were united

should receive

kingdom

of Westphalia, Prussia

exchange

a territory on the left

bank of the

Elbe, with three hundred thousand or four hundred thousand

inhabitants.

and defensive, provided that an ultimatum should be addressed to England on the first of November, and that if it had no results war should be dethird treaty, offensive

clared by Russia on the

first

of

December

that

unless Tur-

key should make peace with

then " the two high

the

Tsar within

three

months,
to

contracting
all

powers should come

the

an
in

understanding

to

withdraw

Ottoman provinces
that

Europe, with the exception of Constantinople and Rnmelia,

from the yoke and tyranny of the Turks";

Sweden

MEETING OF NAPOLEON AND ALEXANDER IN THE MIDDLE OF THE RIVER NIEMEN

1801-1825.]

ALEXANDER
to

I.

^FOREIGN AFFAIRS.
if it

295
refused
it,

should be

summoned

break with England, and

Denmark

was to be invited to take part in the war against

;

and Finland was to be annexed to Russia that Austria should be invited to accede to the system of continental blockade at the same time with Sweden, Denmark, and Portugal.

In certain respects this peace deserved the name of " the treacherous peace," which the English agent, Wilson, ap-

Turkey was abandoned, delivered over by its old friend France, though it is true that Napoleon alleged in excuse the revolution which had just He acted the same overthrown his friend the Sultan Selim.
plied to
it

in his disappointment.

way

in

regard to Sweden, another old

designs against Spain, whose

ally.

He made

all

these sacrifices so as to have the right of executing his

iavelian
loyally

Mach-

troops were
in

fighting

under

his

banners.

Alexander

no small degree
ally,

sacrificed his

honor and interest to these new combinations.

He
sia,

abruptly consented to go to war with his former

;

England he renounced the principle of the integrity of Prusand even accepted as his share in its spoliation the provhe did not hesitate to wrest Finland from ince of Bielostok
;

his

brother-in-law, his

ally

Gustavus the Fourth.

of the grand

He

con-

sented to see under the

euphemism

duchy of
This

Warsaw
had
it

a nucleus of Poland formed on his frontier.

strange treaty might, however, have satisfied the two States,

been faithfully executed.

The

part played

by Russia
;

while was more brilliant, on the whole, than Napoleon's war with fruitless France was about to become exhausted in a Spain, splendid vistas for Alexander's ambition were opening
in the East

and on the Danube.

Thanks

to the

French

alli-

ance, he could follow in this direction the glorious steps of

Sviatoslaf, of Peter the Great,
erine.
astic

For several days,

about his
;

at

and of his grandmother Cathleast, Alexander seemed enthusiof their

ally.

They interchanged the ribbons

orders

each decorated one of the bravest soldiers of the other

296
;

HISTORY OF RUSSIA.

[Chap. XIII.

army the grenadier Lazaref received the cross of the Legion a battalion of the Imperial guard offered a fraterof Honor
;

nal banquet to the Preobrazhenski.

INTERVIEW AT ERFURT: WARS WITH ENGLAND, SWEDEN, AUSTRIA, TURKEY, AND PERSIA.
The change
change
in

in the

foreign

policy

was

to

bring with

it

the composition of the government.

Alexander's

early companions,

who had

entered upon the task of governlofty

ment with no experience, but with

still

aims and with keen

Corruption
for culture,

expectations of success, had been disappointed.

was rampant, disorders increased, the chances

at

which were
lected
;

the disposal of the upper classes, were neg-

the provincial nobility failed to throng the .halls of

universities.

the

new

This failure
;

in his

hopes led Alexander

to distrust his counsellors

such wide-spread disaffection, perhis

haps, sprung

from the personality of

friend.

ministers.

Most

thoroughly was he estranged from Novosiltsof,

his

who had been

as he was, the

most intimate

Devoted

to

England

announcement that Alexander had accepted the cross of the Legion of Honor caused him at Tilsit to demand his dismissal.
Napoleon could have no confidence in Alexander's promises so long as his enemy, Novosiltsof, was at the head of foreign
affairs.

But Alexander did not " chase him out," but simply neglected him until Novosiltsof made some cutting remarks
to Erance.

about the rupture with England and the Russian subservice

Then he was ordered

after,

to travel abroad,

and when

he returned, several years

tor.

he was merely appointed senain

Count Kotchnbey
hundred and seven,

also
to

was allowed,

November, eighpres-

teen

go abroad

to recuperate his failing

health,

and Stroganof was removed from the immediate

title

ence of the Emperor, with the

of major-general in
for his

the

army.
field

He

had distinguished himself

bravery in the

of battle,

George.

Prince

and was made a Knight of the Order of Saint Adam Tchartoruiski was now living in War-

1801-1825.]

ALEXANDER

I.

FOREIGN AFFAIRS.

297

saw, charged with the direction of the University of Vilna

and the Lithuanian Department of Instruction. was playing a double game, Alexander failed and saw
in

Although he
to

discover

it,

him only the man by whose means, sooner or later, Tchartoruiski took pains he should become king of Poland. to further the illusion, and showed himself almost unscrupulous in the way that he deceived the Emperor with an appearBaron Budberg, who had taken

ance of straightforwardness.

TVhartoruiski's place as minister of foreign affairs,

and was well

known

as an

enemy

of Napoleon, was also dismissed.

;

The

minister of finance, Vasilief, died about this time

the former ministers only three were
left.

so that of

The

chief in im-

portance was Rumiantsof,

in

who was made

finance,

Chancellor, but had

reality only a small influence

on the Emperor.

Golubzof

was appointed minister of

Kotchubey's place
in the

and

Kurakin,

who was

distinguished for the Oriental

number

of his

children, took

At the same time appeared two men who were destined to exert a great influence upon Russian affairs, Araktcheef and SperanInterior.
artillerist, and Emperor appointed hi m inspector-general of that service. He managed to use the knowledge of a French emigre, named de Barbiche, who

department of the

ski.

in

Araktcheef was supposed May, eighteen hundred and

to

be a skilful

three, the

by a scrupulous observance of details so deceived Alexander, that in eighteen hundred and five he appointed him to a command in
in

was thoroughly grounded

the use of guns, and

the

field,

which he hastened

to decline.

Afterwards the

Em-

peror
of all

made him war minister, and he set to work to get rid those who stood in his way. As long, however, as the
in his liberal views,

Emperor remained firm

kept in the background.

Araktcheef was

He was

especially

overshadowed by

Mikhail Speranski.

>

Mikhail Mikhailof was the son of a poor priest who, like

other peasants, had no distinctive family name.

He

was des-

tined for the priesthood, and was sent to the seminary at Via-

29S
dimir,

HISTORY OF RUSSIA.

[Chap. XIII.

where he was put under the special protection of a

who, conceiving great hopes of him, allowed him to He soon won distinction, and take the name of Speranski. was advanced to the higher seminary in Saint Petersburg.
relative,

The Metropolitan

of

Moscow

selected

him

as a candidate for

the highest office of the church, but Speranski found that the

priesthood was not

his calling,

so he

became
the

instructor of

mathematics, and later of philosophy, in the seminary of the

Petersburg

Monastery.
profession

He

reached

highest

point

of

honor

in this

when he was made

Prefect of the
latter years

Seminary, at the age of thirty-two.

During the

of Catherine's reign Prince Kurakin, finding himself in need of a private secretary, took Speranski into his pay at the

recommendation of the Metropolitan, and afterwards, when the prince was summoned by Paul to the senate, Speranski enIn three months he was raised tered the service of the State.
to the eighth
bility,

degree of the Tchin, which gives hereditary no-

and

in spite of the successive

changes which ensued

in

Paul's administration, he kept his position, and

shortly before

the

Emperor was assassinated was presented with a large domain in the government of Saratof, and became a Knight Under Alexander he was made Secof the Order of Malta.
retary of State,

and having won Kotchubey's favor, he was He took Novobrought especially to the Emperor's notice. even more became and Tilsit, of Peace the place after siltsof's

He had necessary to Alexander than the former had been. the gift of expressing the Emperor's ideas in pleasing language, and of accomplishing rapidly and successfully whatBut Speranski's position was by ever there was to be done.

no means enviable.
enemies,

His rapid

rise

had brought him many

Araktcheef

who

looked upon him as an interloper.

was watching with envious eyes for an opportunity to destroy Unpopular as the war had been, the peace was still him.

more

and Speranski did not conceal his admiration for the genius of the French Emperor, for the principles born of the
so,

1801-1825.]

ALEXANDER

I.:

FOREIGN AFFAIRS.

299
seriously
;

Revolution, and embodied in the Civil Code.

desired

He

the

maintenance of the French

policy.

alliance

and M.

Pogodin, one of the Slavophils of our time, has not the courage to condemn he says, "
his
this

" It proves,

on the contrary,"

perspicacity as a statesman.
First

The conditions

imposed by Napoleon the

would certainly have been

differ-

more easy
ent.

to bear

than those imposed by Napoleon the Third

future of
still

at Sevastopol.

The

Europe would have been

lately

Sevastopol would

have shone on the shores of the

Black Sea, and the Continent would not

have been

in-

undated with blood by two cruel wars."

tion," says another Slavophil,

The Eastern quesM. Oreste Midler, "would in this

"

case have probably been settled, and English preponderance

would have been extinguished in the Levant." We must recognize the fact that in eighteen hundred and seven Russian aristocracy was not yet reconciled to the state
of things to

which the Revolution had given

herself with

rise.

The Em;

press-mother surrounded

French emigres

her
It

court was the centre of the English and Austrian party.

was not only the sudden abandonment of the ancient alliances which was blamed, but it was also the partial restoration of
the hereditary enemy, Poland
;

and yet the question of the

grand duchy of Warsaw seemed secondary,

dismissal of Louis the Eighteenth,

it

was consid-

ered as a consequence of the subjection to Napoleon.

The

who was

obliged to leave

Mitava

for

England, and the plot at Bayonne against the

still

Bourbons of Spain

further inflamed the passions of men.

Savary, Napoleon's ambassador, had to endure the brunt of

these bitter feelings.

The choice

fortunate one, as Savary

less

of him was by no means a was supposed to have been more or

concerned

in the affair of the

Due

d'Eno-hien.

" Feel in 2;

against the French

no hotel would take me as a lodger. The general reception of myself and my companion was in inverse proportion to the kindness of the Emperor Alexander. During the first six weeks of my

ran so high," says Savary, " that

300

HISTORY OF RUSSIA.

[Chap. XIII.

opened to me. The Emperor of Russia saw all this, and wished it had been otherAt the moment of my arrival at Saint Petersburg wise. prayers were publicly offered in the churches against us, and The bookstores particularly against the Emperor Napoleon." were full of pamphlets against France, against Napoleon, and
stay here I could not get a single door

against the French ambassador.

varv, "

" Nothing," continues Sa-

was equal

to the irreverence with

which the Russian

For some
r

youth dared
time
I

to express itself

about

its

sovereign.

might have
only too

was much disturbed at the consequences this license in a country where revolutions in the palace w ere

common."
in

Napoleon's envoy thought

a

it

even his

duty to place
seized, in
sia to

Alexander's hands
"

correspondence lately

which the writer sent

letters of this
:

kind from Prus-

his

friends in the interior

Have you no longer any

"
?

Pahlens, any Zubofs, any Bennigsens

"

Stedingk, the Swedish ambassador, also wrote to Gustavus

the Fourth
:

The discontent against

and things are said
at

the

increases dailv,

Emperor Alexander this moment which are

frightful to hear.
spair, but there is

The

partisans of the

Emperor

are in de-

no one among them who

dares to

remedy
private

the

evil,

or to reveal to

him the
is

full

danger of the
of,

situation.

A
lic

change of government

spoken

not only in

conversations, but in public meetings."

Some echo
however.

of the pub-

discontent reached Alexander's

to
in

ears,

Admiral

Mordvinof wrote
be passed, those
it

him

"

Though
laid

the days of glory

may

which Russia

down
it

the law

though

may have

lost

the bright hopes which

cherished in our

youth, the sons of Russia are ready to shed the last drop of
their blood rather than

bow ignominiously

before the sword

of

him whose only advantage over them is that he has known how to use weakness, treachery, and incapacity." The historian Karamsin was already preparing for the Emperor his work on " Ancient and Modern Russia."
In
general, the literature of
this

epoch

has a very pro-

1801-1825.]

ALEXANDER

I.:

FOREIGN AFFAIRS.
The

301
of

nounced anti-French character.

Kriukovski and Ozerof
tlie
;

national tragedies

the patriotic odes of Zhukovski; even comedies and tables of " diedushka " Kruilof, the " little
;

grandfather," as he was affectionately called

the productions

of the press, represented by Glinka, Gretch, Batiushkof, and

Shishkof,
for that

all

breathe hatred against Napoleon and aversion

the Russians, accustomed as they

new France which

to admire and imitate the old France of Versailles, looked upon with the eyes of the emigres themselves. The most impetuous of the Gallophobes of this epoch was Count Ros-

were

toptchin.
his

new

satire, "

About eighteen hundred and seven he published 0, the French " and a comedy entitled " The
!

News,"
toms.

or "

The Living-Dead,"

in

which he sharply attacked

the alarmists and the extravagant partisans of Western cus-

In his " Spoken Thoughts on the

:

Red
"

Staircase," in

eighteen hundred and seven, he exclaims

How

long shall

rives

we go on imitating monkeys ? As soon as a Frenchman arwho has escaped the gallows, we fly to welcome him. And he sets the fashions, he represents himself as a prince or a gentleman who has lost his fortune for faith or loyalty, when
is

in reality he
lector, or a

only a lackey or a shopkeeper, or a tax colfled his

suspended priest who has

taught
to-day
?

country in

fear.

What
alone

are children

To pronounce French
to frizz their hair.

properly, to turn their toes out,

is

and

He

a wit

whom

Frenchman
language
?

will take for his country-

man.
even

But how can men

love their country

Is
it

know

their native
is

when they do not not a shame ? In

every country French

taught to children, but only that they

in order that
it

may understand
of their

it,

and not

may

take the place

mother tongue."

He

continues with violent invectives

against French ambition, and invokes the brave soldiers of " Glory to thee, victorious Russian army, bearing the Eylau
:

sword

in

the

name

of Christ.
!

Glory to our Emperor, and

to

our mother Russia

Hail to you, Russian heroes, Tolstoi,

!

Kozhin, Galitsuin, Dokturof, Volkonski, Dolgoruki

Eternal

302

HISTOEY OF RUSSIA.

[Chap. XIII.

peace to you in heaven, young and gallant Galitsuin

Tri-

umph, Russian Empire

coils before thee
;

the

enemy

of the

human
to

race re-

he cannot struggle against thy invincible

as

strength.

He came
;

a savage

lion,

thinking

devour

everything

he

flies

like a

hungry
his

wolf, grinding his teeth."

it is

By

a contradiction, explained by his education,

chiefly

in his correspondence,

and

works written
;

in French, that
it

Rostoptchin attacks the nation so bitterly

that

is

in

French

the Russian nobles, pupils

of the

French of the eigh-

teenth century,

curse France.
live,

Miss Wilmot, writing about

eighteen hundred and

with an obvious intention of dis-

paraging both nations,

scoffs

"at the absurdity of Bruin the

bear when he gambols with a

monkey on

his shoulders."

" In

the midst of this adoption of French manners, habits, and lan-

guage, there

is

something stupidly puerile in declamation

against Bonaparte and the French,

dine without a French cook to

when the Russians cannot make ready their repast when

;

they cannot bring up their children without the help of adventurers

ors
;

in a

come from Paris, under the names of tutors and governword, when all their notions of fashion, luxury, and

elegance are borrowed from France.

What
Tilsit.

arrant folly

"
!

Such was Russian

society

after

On

account

of

these evil dispositions towards France, the indignation raised

by the abominable attempt of England against Denmark, and

the

Copenhagen in a time of peace in September, eighteen hundred and seven, made a diversion of only short duration. At one moment we might almost believe that
of

bombardment

the Peace of Tilsit had but three partisans in Russia,

the

Emperor, the

Chancellor
to find

Rumiantsof, and

Speranski.

Yet

Alexander began
all

one illusion after another disappear

the acts of his ally

of

wounded

his

convictions.

After the

exile

the kings

of Sardinia and Naples, he had to see

the expulsion of the house of Braganza, the dethronement of

the Bourbons of Spain, the forced flight of the

The Confederation

of the

Pope Rhine, increasing beyond

of
all

Rome.
meas-

1301-1825.]

ALEXANDER

1.

FOREIGN AFFAIRS.

303

ure,
tic

now extended

across the Elbe,

and had reached the Bal;

by means of Liibeck and Mecklenburg on the Vistula, the grand duchy of Warsaw was being organized with formidable power.

Peter Tolstoi,

make himself
of the

liked at Paris,

who certainly had done nothing to who was involved in a quarrel

in

with Ney, and had entered into relations with the legitimists

Faubourg Saint-Germain, was unable

any way

to

soften the lot of Frederic William the Third, or to obtain the

promised evacuation of the Prussian States.

for
all

Scanty, indeed,

was the compensation The first campaign against Sweden had been far from brilliant. The naval war with England was causing the ruin of Russian
these
sacrifices.

commerce. At Constantinople, General Guillemor, Napoleon's ambassador, had managed on the twenty-fourth of
August, eighteen hundred and seven, to conclude an armistice

between Turkey and Russia, in virtue of which the

but as none of the conditions were
still

latter

had
days

to evacuate the Danubian principalities within thirty-five

;,

fulfilled,

the Russian

troops

remained in Moldavia and Valakhia.

There was

no longer any likelihood of the partition of the Ottoman

pire, that brilliant vision

Em-

which had led astray Alexander's

lively imagination.

The famous Franco-Russian alliance was shaken. Napoleon, who wanted to make Spain and Portugal domains of his family, and had exiled the Spanish reigning family to Bayonne, had on his hands a terrible revolt to quiet, and he saw rising above the horizon another war with Austria. He therefore felt that he must give his ally some satisfaction. The interview at Erfurt took place on the seventeenth of September, eighteen hundred and eight, and lasted four weeks.

Alexander was accompanied by

his

brother Konstantin, the

ministers, Rumiantsof, Speranski, Prince Alexander Galitsuin,

and two Frenchmen, the ambassador Caulaincourt, and Marshal Lannes, whom he had found at Bromberg, in Poland, on
his visit to the

King

of Prussia,

and had taken him into

his

304
favor.

HISTORY OF RUSSIA.

[Chap. XIII.

Napoleon brought with him Berthier, the diplomatists

Talleyrand,
Tolstoi.

Champagny, Maret, and

the Russian ambassador

Missals

There was also another court, formed by his German the Prince-Primate of the Rheinbund the kings
;

the grand dukes of Baden, Darmstadt, Oldenburg, and Mecklenburg; and the sovereigns of Thuringia. Prussia was represented
;

of Saxony, Bavaria, Wi'irtemberg,

and Westphalia

by Prince William, who came

brother
;

to plead for the interests of his

to

Austria by
in the

Baron Vincent, charged

salute

the

two emperors

name
"

of his master.

The Russians, with

wounded

pride, did not fail to take notice of the superior inI

fluence of the French.

in the person of
its

seem

to see

my

country degraded

sovereign," says Nikolai Turgenief, with

passionate exaggeration. "There was no need to know what was passing in European cabinets you could tell at a glance which of the two emperors was master at Erfurt and in Eu;

rope."

Napoleon certainly wished

to receive the
;

Tsar

in a

town

that was his

own

property, at Erfurt

it

was certainly around

him

that this assemblage of sovereigns specially pressed,

and

these appearances really answered to a superiority of power.

But though Napoleon neglected nothing to make the young Emperor forget all that was unequal in their respective situations, he could not undo the fact that Alexander had not been the victor at Friedland. Nor was he always wise in his overweening pride. He had a hare-hunt on the battle-field of
Jena, and invited Prince William of Prussia.

He

decorated

French soldiers with the cross of the Legion of Honor, bringing into special notice their glorious deeds in battle with the
Russians, the cannon they had captured, the standards they

had taken from the

tation.
it,

fleeino;

regiments of the Tsar.

Such a
irri-

scene was not calculated to soothe the Russian Emperor's

The Grand Duke Konstantin was unable to endure and withdrew. But Alexander in no way showed his sen-

sitiveness,

and when the French players acted Voltaire's (Edipe, Alexander repeated the celebrated line, "A great man's friend-

VIEW IN ERFURT.

1S01-1S25.]

ALEXANDER

I.:

FOREIGN AFFAIRS.

305
it

ship

is

the noblest gift the gods can give," applying

to

himself and Napoleon. In

the

midst of

fetes,

banquets,

balls,

theatrical

repredis-

sentations, and hunting-parties, serious cussed between the two sovereigns and

interests

were

their ministers.

On

the twelfth of October, eighteen hundred and eight,

Cham-

pagny and Rumiantsof signed the following convention, which was to remain secret The emperors of France and Russia renewed their alliance with all solemnity, and engaged to make peace or war in common they were to communicate to each other all proposals which might be made they were to propose an immediate peace to Engto them land in a manner as public and conspicuous as possible, so as
:

to render refusal on the part of the British Cabinet

cult.

more

diffi-

This proposition took the form of a

letter

addressed

to the

King of England, and signed by the two emperors. They agreed, moreover, to negotiate on the basis of Uti posFrance was to consent only to such a peace as sidetis secured to Russia, Finland, Valakhia, and Moldavia Russia,
:

only to a peace which should confirm France in

possessions,

all its

actual

and give to Joseph Bonaparte the crown of Spain and the Indies. Russia might set about immediately to obtain the Danubian provinces from Turkey, whether by peace or by war but the French and Russian ambassadors should come
;

to an

understanding about the language to be used, " so as

not to compromise the existing friendship between France and the Porte." And if Russia by the acquisition of the Danubian provinces, or France about its Italian or Spanish
affairs,

found themselves exposed to a rupture with Austria,

allies

the two

were

to

make war
to separate

in

common.

Napoleon had
Talleyrand

now

fully

determined

from Josephine.

was trusted
Tolstoi

to treat of the question of

Napoleon's marriage
sister.

with Ekaterina Pavlovna, Alexander's

The

recall

of

was demanded, and

Prussia
20
II.

his

place was filled

by Prince

Kurakin.
vol.

obtained a remission of twenty million

306
francs of
its

HISTORY OF RUSSIA.

[Chap. XIII.

war indemnity of one hundred and forty millions, and the evacuation of its territory on condition that its army To recapitushould be reduced to forty-two thousand men.
late
:

Alexander guaranteed to Napoleon the tranquillity of

the seizure of Finland

the continent during his operations in Spain, while Napoleon

ratified

and the Danubian provinces.

Napoleon accompanied Alexander a considerable way on the road from Erfurt to Weimar they then once more bade each
;

other farewell, and separated on the fourteenth of October.

It

was the

last

time that they met.

The

alliance

formed

at Tilsit

volved Russia in three wars,

with

and confirmed

at

Erfurt in-

England, with Sweden,

Moreover, hostilities had been and afterwards with Austria. going on with Turkey since eighteen hundred and six, and with Persia and the tribes of the Caucasus ever since Alexander's accession to the throne.

The war with England is notable for only one fact of importance: The Russian fleet of the Archipelago, commanded by Admiral Seniavin, on its way to the Atlantic, as
it

sought harbor in the Tangas, on September eighth, eighteen

eight,

hundred and

was obliged
the

to

surrender

to

Admiral
by the

Cotton, according to

Treaty of Cintra,

signed

The It was conveyed to England. French General, Junot. courtesy, and officers and the crews were treated with perfect
sent back to

Russia at English expense.

Five years later

still

Russia recovered the ships.

The embargo was

in

force
fell

against English shipping, and Russia to a certain degree

in

with the system of the continental blockade.

Gustavus the Fourth, King of Sweden, was not well regulated in

mind his hatred of Napoleon only equalled his inaBeing a firm believer in the Bible, bility to do him injury. he saw in the Emperor of the French the veritable Beast of
;

the Apocalypse.
"

caused a wretched pamphlet, called the Nights of Saint Cloud," to be translated into Swedish.

He

After concluding an armistice with Mortier, in eighteen hun-

1801-1825.]

ALEXANDER
he broke
it

I.:

FOREIGN AFFAIRS.

307

dred and

six,

at the very

time the negotiations

last

were pending
in

at Tilsit, just in

time to lose his

to live in

possessions

Pomerania.

He

was able

peace neither with

in misfor-

England, which he defied, nor with Prussia, which

alone of the European sovereigns applauded the
of Copenhagen,

tunes he insulted, nor with his brother-in-law Alexander.

He

bombardment

son at
first

and he regaled Admirals Gambier and JackHelsingfors. When Alexander had to make him the
relative
to

overtures

the

peace with France

and the

adoption of the continental system, Gustavus the Fourth impertinently

returned

the

ribbon

of

Saint

Vladimir.

On

the eighteenth of February, eighteen hundred and eight, he

thousand Rusunder Buxhoevden, crossed the Kiiimen, which had been, since the time of Elisabeth, the boundary between the
sixty
sians,

signed a treaty with England.

Then

States. A proclamation was addressed to the Finns, advising them not to resist " their friends, their protectors,"

two

and

to

appoint deputies for the diet which Alexander in-

tended to assemble.
retreated
to

The Swedish

troops were dispersed,

and
in

the

north;

Finland was
;

almost

conquered

March, eighteen hundred and eight

nable Sveaborg,

Helsingfors, the impreg-

Abo, and the

Isles of

Aland
for

fell

into the
to

hands of the Russians.

hesitate

Fortune seemed

one

moment

when Klingspor gained two important

successes over

the Russians, but he was immediately after obliged to retire

into the deserts of Bothnia.

to the Finnish soldiers serving in the

them

to

Another proclamation was issued Swedish army, inviting desert with arms and baggage, promising them two

rubles for every gun, one ruble for a sabre, and six for a horse.

During the winter the Russians fortified themselves in the Isles of Aland and three corps, commanded by Kulner, Bagration, and Barclay de Tolly, crossed the Gulf of Bothnia on the ice, and carried the war into the Swedish country. A
;

military revolution broke out in

of

Stockholm on the thirteenth

March, eighteen hundred and nine.

No

blood was shed,

303

HISTORY OF RUSSIA.

[Chap. XIII.

but Gustavus the Fourth was arrested, and confined at Drot-

tingholm with his family.

travelled in

Later he was set at liberty, and

Europe under the name of Colonel Gustaffson.

His uncle, the Duke of Sudermania, assumed the crown unHe signed the Peace der the title of Charles the Thirteenth. of Fredericksham, which ceded Finland as far as the river

Augustus of IIolstein-Augustenburg, the prince royal elected by the States, died, Bernadotte, marshal of France, was chosen Napoleon had little sympathy with this proto fill his place. he would have preferred a Danish prince, whose ceeding accession would have brought about a Scandinavian union. The success of the war with Sweden caused little enthusiasm
Tornea.
Christian
;

In eighteen hundred and ten,

when

in Saint Petersburg,
tile attack,

though the

capital
fleet

though the Swedish

was secured from hoswas henceforth banished

!

from the Gulf of Finland.

said the people.

" Poor

Sweden
it

poor Swedes

"
!

Finland, coveted for so long, had lost

;

its

value in the eyes of the Russians

of Napoleon.

According

to his

seemed too much a gift promise, Alexander had con-

voked the Diet of Finland, and guaranteed to the " grand duchy " its privileges, its university, and its constitution.
In
April, eighteen
fifth

hundred and

nine,

began the war of

Alexander,

Napoleon and the

coalition against Austria.

whom

the Treaty of Erfurt obliged to furnish a contingent,

all

had done and

he could

to

prevent this war.

in alliance

lie

had warned
guarantee

the Cabinet of Vienna that he was

offered,

with Napoleon,

on the part of himself and his

ally, to

the integrity of the Austrian possessions.

Forced to put a
of thirty thou-

contingent under arms, he gave the

command

sand

men

to

Prince Sergi Galitsuin, to act in concert with

generals of
the grand

duchy This war of of Warsaw, against the Archduke Ferdinand. was comedy; they deAustrians a against the Russians the
Poniatovski and Dombrovski,
tested their Polish allies,

and feared their success

in Gallicia

above everything.

In the whole campaign there were only

1801-1825.]

ALEXANDER

L:

FOREIGN AFFAIRS.
:

309

two encounters between the Russians and Anstrians at the battle of Ulanovka, on June fifteenth, there was only one killed and two wounded, and the Austrian major sent excuses
to Galitsuin, saying at the battle of

he thought he was attacking the Poles

Podgurzhe, near Krakof, there were two killed

and two wounded. The conflicts between the Russians and Poles were much more frequent. Galitsuin allowed Sandomir to be taken by
the Anstrians under his very eyes,

and Poniatovski
conduct."

in vain

denounced

to

Alexander

this " traitorous

On

the

other hand, the Russians entered

Lemberg when

the Poles

and attempted to prevent the people At Krakof, the Russian swearing allegiance to Napoleon. and the Polish armies almost came to blows. The Poles were uneasy at seeing the Muscovites in Gallicia, and the Russians
had already taken
it,

attributed
allies

all

kinds of dangerous projects to the Poles.

"

Our

disturb me more than the Austrians," writes Galitsuin

to his master.

He
of

complains that Poniatovski, after having

commandant of the " Warsaw troops," or " of the ninth corps of the Grand Army," appropriated that " There is no Polish of " commandant of the Polish army." " The " there is only an army of Warsaw." army," he said Emperor of the French is at liberty to give what names he
taken the
title
;

chooses to the corps which are under his orders," replied

Poniatovski.
Galitsuin announced that Poniatovski

had reinforced

his

army with

Polish soldiers, deserters from Austrian regiments, and Lithuanian nobles, subjects of Russia. In the theatres of the Gallician towns the King of Poland was represented

Dwina and the Dnieper forming the new Poland. Galitsuin counselled Alexander to take from the French this weapon of Polish propaganda, by proclaiming himself restorer of Poland. The Tsar refused,
leaving his tomb, the
frontiers of

alleging the inconstancy of the Poles,

and the necessity of

all

preserving the Lithuanian provinces from

contagion.

310

HrSTORY OF RUSSIA.

[Chap. XTII.

At the Congress of Schonbrunn, on October fourteenth,

eighteen

hundred and

nine,

which preceded the Treaty of

declined
to

Vienna, the
represented.

Emperor

of

Russia

have himself
results,

He

did not intend to sanction the

but

by so doing he
it

left

Austria unsupported, and in consequence

was obliged
souls,

to cede its Illyrian provinces,

and

all Gallicia.

Napoleon added Western

sand
to the

Gallicia, with fifteen

hundred thou-

grand duchy of Warsaw, while he gave

Eastern Gallicia, and a population of four hundred thousand,

to Russia.

This

gift

was

not, 'however, sufficient to

compen-

sate

danger of an aggrandized Poland. o CO The war with Turkey had already been going on for many
for the

Alexander

years.

In eighteen hundred and four Russia proposed to the

alliance against Prance, but

Divan an

demanded

at the

same

time that the subjects of the Sultan professing the orthodox

religion should be placed

under the immediate protection of

Selim the Third repelled a

the Russian diplomatic agents.

proposal that threatened the very integrity of his empire.

tried to

He
title

make advances

to

France, applauded the victories of

Napoleon, and after Austerlitz acknowledged his imperial

and sent an envoy

ambassador

to Paris with presents, in spite of the efforts

of the Russian ambassador Italinski.

left

After Jena an

Ottoman

for Berlin, to

strengthen the alliance with the

padishah of the French.

of Valakhia and Moldavia,

Ypsilanti

and Morusi, hospodars

to

who were devoted

Russia, were

stripped of their dominions.

This was a breach of the Peace

of Iassy with Catherine the Second.

About

this time

began the troubles of Serbia.

formed a turbulent

The

Janisof

saries of this country

militia, like that

Egypt and

Algiers, oppressed the Christian populations, en-

tered into a contest with the Pasha of Belgrad, the spahis, or

noble cavalry, and other Mussulmans, and even trod under

foot the authority of the Sultan.
chiefs,

They would obey only

called dakhie, or deys.

their

four in number,

who were

Several times the Sultan, Selim the Third, resolved to sup-

1801-1825.]

ALEXANDER

I.:

FOREIGN AFFAIRS.
and

311
of

press this dangerous element,

at last the Janissaries

Serbia, in order to anticipate any attempt to do

away with

their privileges, decided to massacre the princes of the Christian population,

which was

hostile to them.

This massacre

took place during the month of February, eighteen hundred

powerful and four. Those who escaped joined the Haiduki, bands of Serbians who had fled from their homes and taken Thoroughly aroused by the murder of refuge in the forests.
their

countrymen, the Haiduki rose against the Janissaries,

at

and put
Iuri, or

their

head Iuri Petrovitch, who was called Kara-

George the Black.

he had in a

He was

a rich pork-merchant, but

having been involved

to Austria,

in a previous revolt,
fit

and obliged

to flee

of indignation killed his father,

who was

anxious for

him

to return

and submit

to the Turks.

He

returned to Serbia, however, and began a war of exter-

the Janissaries. The Haiduki expelled the Mussulmans and deys from Belgrad, Shabatch, and Ushitza,

mination with

affecting all the time to be only executing the orders of the

Sultan.

When

Selim wished

to recall

them

to obedience

and

demanded
the

the restitution of the strong places, they broke with

himself,

Sultan

and

declared

themselves

independent.

They would have been crushed by the superior forces of the neighboring pashas, if the Russians had not taken up arms in eighteen hundred and six, which freed the frontiers. Alexander sent them an auxiliary corps under Colonel Bala. The Russian ambassador protested against the deposition of Ypsilanti and Morusi, and against the violation of the Treaty of Iassy. The English ambassador almost induced the Divan to yield on October seventeenth, eighteen hundred and six, when without a declaration of war the Russian general

Michelson crossed the

frontier,

invaded

Moldavia with

thirty-five

thousand men, took Khotin and Bender, entered

Bukarest, and advanced towards the Danube.

The

British

ambassador wished
to,

to act as mediator,

but he was not listened

and

so he demonstratively

withdrew from Constantinople.

312

HISTORY OF RUSSIA.

[Chap. XIII.

In February, eighteen hundred and seven, the English

fleet

part of the Turkish fleet in the Sea of

at the entrance of the
for a

under Admiral Duckworth passed the Dardanelles, burnt a Marmora, and appeared
Bosphorus, blockading Constantinople

few days.
Sultan

This demonstration failed before the firmness

Seliin

and the military preparations of the French ambassador Sebastiani. Engineer and artillery officers hastened from the French army of Dalmatia. The English
of

the

vessels returned to Malta,

and the Turkish

fleet,

crossing the

Dardanelles in

its

turn, gave battle to the Russian

Admiral

Seniavin, in the waters of Tenedos.

time

after, in

It was beaten. May, Selim the Third was deposed

A
in

short

conse-

quence of a revolt of the Janissaries,

insulted the faith of Islam

who claimed
his
fall

that

he

by introducing reforms into the

as a pretext

army and the empire.

for sacrificing

Napoleon used
at Tilsit.

Turkey

Guilleminot,

Sebastiani's

successor,

received an order to

aid the Russians " in everything, not officially, but effectively."

In

spite

of

the

armistice

concluded by his exertions,

the

Russian troops continued to occupy the principalities, whose

administration was confided to a divan

composed

of Russians

and Rumanian

boyars.

After Erfurt, the Sultan having re-

fused to subscribe to the dismemberment of his empire, the

war began anew. The campaign of eighteen hundred and the Russians conquered nearly nine was partially successful all the fortresses on the Danube, but were defeated in BulgaIn eighteen hundred and ten Fieldria by the Grand Vizier.
;

Marshal Kamenski reconquered Bulgaria as

Batinia,

far as the

Balkans,

and gained a brilliant victory at In eighteen hundred and eleven his successor, Kutuzof, managed to draw the Grand Vizier to the left bank of the Danube, and crushed him at Slobodzei, but the imminence of a rupture with France forced the Tsar to withdraw five divisions of the army of the Danube. A congress assembled at Bukarest in eighteen hundred and twelve, in which Russia gave up Mol-

near Rushtchuk.

1801-1825.]

ALEXANDER

I.:

FOREIGN AFFAIRS.

313

davia and Valakhia, but kept Bessarabia, a

with the fortresses of Khotin and Bender.

the

Rumanian district, The Pruth and

Kilia,

Lower Danube, where Russia acquired Ismail and

It

formed the limit of the two empires.

was agreed that the

hospodars of Valakhia and Moldavia should be restored, and

all

the ancient privileges of those countries confirmed.

for

The
to

eighth article stipulated

bians,

an amnesty in favor of the Serbe

who were

to

remain subjects of the Sultan, but

governed by Iuri Petrovitch, assisted by the skupsht'china, or

national assembly. teen hundred

Turkey took no part

in the

wars of eigh;

but

it

and twelve and eighteen hundred and thirteen profited by them to violate the eighth article, and dethe Serbians

mand

that

should deliver over

all

their

arms
all

and accoutrements, and receive Turkish garrisons

the cities of the principality.

into

The Serbians had an army

fifty

of

twenty thousand men, and one hundred and

cannon.
in

George the Black refused

armies invaded
order of things.

to listen to these

demands, and

the spring of eighteen hundred and thirteen three

the country,

Ottoman

and re-established the ancient George the Black, and the greater part of
;

the Serbian vo'ievodui, fled to Austrian soil

to death
;

others were put

one alone remained in the country, and managed to

This was
too intoler-

gain the respect and even confidence of the Turks.

Milosh Obrenovitch.

When

the oppression

became

able, he gave the signal for

a new insurrection

in the spring

of eighteen hundred and fifteen, and reconquered the indepen-

dence of his country.

Ertari

The Turks, having been defeated

Milosh, however, caused

at

and Mashva, withdrew from the countrv, and George

the Black hastened to return.

to

him

be assassinated just as he crossed the border, and, being

free

now

from a dangerous

rival,

he entered into negotiations

with the Turks, and made the Porte accept a treaty in Nov-

ember, eighteen hundred and seventeen, which recognized the

autonomy

of Serbia, under the sceptre of the Sultan, with a

national government

composed

of Milosh as hereditary prince,

314
and a
skiipslif china,

HISTORY OF RUSSIA.

[Chap. XIII.

but with the principal fortresses occupied

by Ottoman garrisons.
dred and sixty-seven.

This system lasted

till

eighteen hun-

At the same time as the Turkish war,

eighteen
regain
its

hostilities

began

in to

hundred and

six

against

Persia,

which wished

authority over Georgia, and against the tribes of

the Caucasus.

Prince Tsitsianof, Count Gudovitch, Tormasof,

all

and Kotliarevski
paign.

distinguished

themselves in this cam-

In eighteen hundred and three Tsitsianof had caused

Maria, the Tsaritsa-mother of Georgia, to be transported to

Saint Petersburg, as she refused to recognize the legitimacy

of the cession

made by her

eldest son to Paul the First.

He

subdued the Shirvan, but was treacherously assassinated by

the khan Hussein-Kuli, under the walls of Baku.

Glasenop

punished Ali-Khan, an accomplice

ing him of Derbend.
the Caucasian
tribes,

in

the crime, by depriv-

Persia attempted to

come

to the aid of

and

Prince

Abbas-Mirza passed

the

Araxes with twenty thousand men, but was defeated. laborious war lasted till eighteen hundred and thirteen.
a more serious struggle was already beginning the attention and forces of Russia.

This

But
all

to

absorb

GRAND DUCHY OF WARSAW: CAUSES OP THE SECOND WAR WITH NAPOLEON.

The misunderstanding between Alexander and Napoleon became more bitter day by day. The most important of the The growth of the causes leading to it were the following the discontent of Napoleon at grand duchy of Warsaw
:

the conduct of the Russians

in

the campaign

of eighteen

hundred and nine; the abandonment of the project of a Russian marriage, and the substitution of an Austrian marriage the increasing rivalry of the two States at Constantinople and
;

on the Danube; the Napoleonic encroachments of eighteen hundred and ten in Northern Germany irritation produced
;

by the continental blockade

by the respective armaments.

and the mistrust occasioned

[801-1825.]

ALEXANDER

I.:

FOREIGN AFFAIRS.

315

At the Treaty of Tilsit, Napoleon had formed the grand duchy of Warsaw out of the Prussian provinces of Warsaw, Posnauia, and Bromberg, with a population of two million At the Treaty of Vienna he had five hundred thousand. increased it by Western Gallicia, including Krakof, Radom, Lublin, and Sandomir, inhabited by fifteen hundred thousand people. He had reserved to himself all the means for he had given Dantzig to no one, and reconstituting Poland the Illyrian provinces of Aushad declared it a free city tria might in his hands soon be exchanged for the rest of Gallicia and the treaty of eighteen hundred and twelve with There the Emperor Francis was to realize this calculation. was no need even to take away the acquisitions of the third
; ;
;

partitioner,

Russia,

for

at

that

time Russia possessed only

Lithuania and White Russia, provinces which, as

are not Polish.
self
tria,

we know,

It

sufficed

to take

back what he had himbeing

ceded to Alexander out of the spoils of Prussia and Aus-

Bielostok
it

and Western

Gallicia, the latter

still

in great

part Little Russian.

officially,

The name
it

of Poland was not

pronounced
sure,

but in fact

already existed.
its

To be

had a

foreigner, the

King

of Saxony, for

sovereign,

but the ancestors of Frederic Augustus had reigned over Poland,

and

it

was

to the

house of Saxony that the patriots of

the third

of

May, seventeen

hundred and ninety-one, had

after Stanislas Poniatovski.

wished to secure the succession

hundred and seven, compiled by a Polish commission, and approved by Napoleon, was almost that of the third of May, seventeen hundred and ninety-one. Napoleon had advised the King of Saxony to dismiss the Prussian officials, and to govern Poland with the Poles. The executive power belonged to the king, who was assisted by a council of responsible ministers with a president at their head. The legislative power was divided between the king, the senate, and the legislative body. The senate was composed of six bishops, six palatines, and six castellans
of eighteen
;

The Constitution

31

HISTORY OF RUSSIA.

[Chap. XIII.

the legislative body, of sixty deputies elected in the districts

from the
chief

nobility,

and

forty deputies

from the towns

their

work
of

lay in the imposition of taxes

and the compilation

Gallicia the

of the laws.

After the annexation of Western

of parliament was increased.

number

members
silent

Napoleon

could boast, as Bignon

says, of having " raised a tribune in the

midst of the
ments."
liament

atmosphere of the neighboring governthe old royal castle in which the Par-

The Zamok,
sat,

was the centre of the Polands still disunited. gave the grand duchy his Civil Code, which did Napoleon
not express
the actual
social state
social
state

of the
itself.

country, but on

which the

was

to

model

He proclaimed
to their

the freedom of the

serfs,

while

preserving

former

masters the right of property over the lands.

to this, the present

With regard
in a

Russian government has proceeded

more
land,

radical fashion.

Napoleon created parliamentary Poliberty

a Poland

whose

was based on greater

ecjuality

than in former times.

The army of the grand duchy was raised to thirty thousand men after eighteen hundred and seven, to fifty thousand
after

eighteen

hundred and nine

at

its

head

was Iosiph
van-

Poniatovski,

nephew

of the last king, the

man who was

Napoleonic

quished at Zielentse, the hero of

many

battle.

Under him served Dombrovski, a soldier of the campaign of seventeen hundred and ninety-nine; Zaiontchek, Avho had fought with the French in Egypt; and Khlopitski, the inThe sentimenrs trepid leader of the Polish legions in Spain.
which animated the army are
published "
Brandt.
still

reflected

in

the recently

Memoirs

of a Polish

Officer," written

by General

In a country where every peasant

cavalry was always admirable
;

is

born a horseman, the had

lately

the infantry

been

improved; the

artillery

had

been organized

by the French-

men Bontemps and

lin,

Pelletier;

the fortresses of Plotsk,

Mod-

Thorn, and Zamosts had been restored by lla\o and Alix.

1801-1825.]

ALEXANDER!: FOREIGN

AFFAIRS.

317

The army, where

of the Vistula,

the former serf was shoulder to shoulder with

the gentleman, was a school of equality.

made

use of by Napoleon for his

The famous own

legions
private

ends, acquired an imperishable glory in the wars of Prussia,

Austria, and Russia.

The

ministers of

the

grand duchy

Stanislas

Pototski,

president of the council, Iosiph Poniatovski, minister of war,

Lubienski, of justice, Matushevitch, of finance,

of police,

Sobolevski,

and others-

were

upright

and

intelligent

men.

Bignon, Napoleon's
Poland.

representative, a

man

of
full

clear

under-

standing and admirable qualifications, was

to

of devotion

Unfortunately, he was
crisis,

recalled,

on

the eve of

the supreme

and the Archbishop of Malines, Abbe de

Pradt, a noisy and vain character,

ble by literary vanity, was sent to

of a mighty and luxurious lord,

made still more disagreeaWarsaw to play the part and a large sum of money
him
do
all

was put

at

his

disposition, to enable

to entertain the
in

Polish gentry.

He

was instructed

induce the Poles, in

Russia, to join their

power to case war broke out between Prance and army with the Prench. But Napoleon
to

his

soon had reason to repent of his choice of the Archbishop,

who, meddling with despatches and debates, seriously compromised him, when he wished
Pinally, he
at present to

remain neutral.
Poles that
re-

was obliged
it

to

tell

the enthusiastic
to

he could not see

in

his
its

power

do anything toward
It is true,

establishing Poland on
its parties.

old footing.

Warsaw had
their

The Tchartoruiski had with reason made up

to

minds, in case of need,

osity.

have recourse to Alexander's gener-

Nevertheless, in eighteen hundred and eleven,

guns of Warsaw announced the birth of the all thought themselves in safety under the protectorate of Prance. Never had the lively and witty Polish society been
so brilliant.
reality the

when the King of Rome,

The growth

of the

vanguard of the Grand

Warsaw army, which was in Army of the Vistula, was

for

always an object of disquietude for Alexander and anger

318
the Russians.

HISTORY OF RUSSIA.
The "mixed subjects"

[Chap. Xrrr.

who who

held lands in the grand duchy

passed from one service to the other

diplomatic intrigues.
"

and were
that
in

is,

the nobles

Lithuania, and
the pretext
bit-

for perpetual

Alexander remarked

terly that " the spectre of

Poland
to

was being worked on the

untrustworthy frontier of Lithuania.

Napoleon had not hesitated

complain to Kurakin of the

way in which the Gallician campaign had been conducted. " you never drew the sword " You were lukewarm," he said
;

once."

The
sister,

projected marriage

w ith Anna
r

Pavlovna, Alexander's

more than one direction. The Empress-mother, Mary of Wurtemberg, by the will of Paul, which was kept at the Assumption in the Kreml, had been invested with absolute power to dispose of her daughters in
met with
difficulties in

marriage.

But she alleged

that

the

laws of the orthodox

church did not allow marriage with a

vorced.

man who had been

di-

Anna was

already betrothed to the Prince of Saxesister

Coburg, while her

Ekaterina, perhaps

with a view of

escaping a request of this nature, had been married to the

Grand Duke Peter of Oldenburg. Napoleon's first marriage had been barren, and he might a second time repudiate his wife. The difference of religion was another barrier. Anna could not embrace Catholicism, and the idea of seeing a Russian priest and chapel at the Tuileries was repugnant to
Napoleon.
tion
;

Alexander took
it

little

pains to press the negotiafor a

he complicated

by another negotiation

formal

promise that Poland should never be re-established.

leon lost
to be
all

Napo-

patience, and, as the house of Hapsburg seemed

ready to meet his wishes, the Austrian marriage was

both anger and regret.

concluded.

Alexander

felt

closer
to

alliance

between France and Austria was prejudicial

interests of Russia in the East

the essential

In eighand on the Danube. teen hundred and nine Talleyrand submitted to Napoleon a

1801-1825.]

ALEXANDER
in

I.:

FOREIGN AFFAIRS.

319

project
it

which consisted

indemnifying Austria by putting

principalities,

in

possession of the

Rumanian

and of the

Slav provinces of Turkey, which would have created a perma-

nent conflict of interests between Russia and Austria.

former, driven from the Danube, would

The

have been forced to

In this emer-

turn towards Central Asia, towards Hindostan.

gency

it

would

in turn
all

with England, and

Empire would by this same year Duroc laid before Napoleon another memorial, in which he showed that the alliance with Russia was con:

itself at perpetual war germ of coalition against the French means have been extinguished. In the

have found

trary to

French traditional policy

sions in Italy

Russia in

that the French possesand Dalmatia were threatened by the action of Serbia and Greece that Russia defended Prussia
;
;

only because

it

reckoned on the use of the Prussian army

if

needed
sula;

that

it

favored the Spanish enterprise, in the hope of

seeing two hundred thousand

Frenchmen perish
far as

in the Penin-

that the interest of the Napoleonic dynasty

demanded
of
it

that Russia should be that the

pushed as

possible to the East

the old dynasty

dismemberment of Poland had been the shame and lastly, that the re-establishment of
;

was necessary
Europe.

to the greatness of

France and the security of

Prince Kurakin managed to procure a copy of this

it

memorial, and sent

to

the

Emperor Alexander
"

in

March,
it

eighteen hundred and nine, pointing out

how dangerous

was
nine.

for

Russia to permit the ruin of Austria."

this in the

Alexander

remembered

campaign of eighteen hundred and

the Senatus Consultum of

In eighteen hundred and ten

July pronounced the union of the whole of Holland to the

French Empire;
of three

that of December, the reunion with France

Hanse towns, besides Oldenburg, and other German territories. It was not a simple occupation for the purpose
of securing the execution of the continental blockade
;

it

was

an annexation.

In

the

law of nations, as

understood by

320
Napoleon,
treaties.

HISTORY OF RUSSIA.
these
decisions
of

[Chap. XIII.

the

senate

were

to

replace

Where were

these encroachments to stop?

Ham-

burg, Bremen, and Liibeck, free towns, whose existence was

an object of interest to the commerce of the whole world,

and

especially to Russia,

were now

French.

By means
its

of

Liibeck, the

French Empire would strengthen

hold

on

the Baltic, on that " Variag Sea," where the Russians, since

Peter the First, had been disputing the preponderance of the

Scandinavians.

Another of these annexations, that of Oldenyet

burg,

wounded Alexander

more deeply.

He saw

his sis-

ter Ekaterina

and her husband, robbed of

their crowns, taking

The wrong to his interests and was yet further increased by the want of respect towards him. He had neither been consulted nor informed
refuge in Saint Petersburg.
his affections

of the step.

Like the

rest of the world,

Alexander heard of

this conquest, in
It
is

the height of peace, through the Moniteur.

true, that since that

time

many

other

German

allies

of

the imperial
their

house have been deprived of their crowns or

prerogatives, without any remonstrance

essential

from

Russia.

Kurakin was charged

to

draw the

attention of

Champagny

to the twelfth article of the Peace of Tilsit,

which expressly

declared that Oldenburg was to be under Russian auspices.

Champagny
him
that
in

talked of the necessity of the step, and assured

that the

Grand Duke should receive an indemnity, but he must become a French subject if he wished to remain
Alexander sent a note
to all

Oldenburg.
in

the other cabialli-

nets,

which, while affirming the maintenance of his

lie

ance with Napoleon,

protested against the annexation of

irritated at the

Oldenburg.

The conqueror was deeply

pub-

licity of this note, as

well as at the remarks

accompanying the
was observed

protest.

As
from

to

the continental blockade, although

less

it

by Russia
it.

strictly

than by France, yet

it

suffered cruelly

The commerce with England was stopped.

The

1801-1825.]

ALEXANDER

I.:

FOREIGN AFFAIRS.
to

321

Russian aristocracy made a plot

reopen the sea to their

and the other natural productions of the country. The paper ruble, which was worth sixty-seven silver kopecks in Paul's reign, and which, during Alexander's early years, had risen as high as eighty, was not worth more than
hemp,
their grains,

twenty-five in eighteen
this

hundred and ten. same year Alexander promulgated an

design

In

December

of

edict which, with

the apparent

of preventing specie from

leaving the

country, proscribed the importation of objects of luxury from

whatever country they came, particularly of

embroideries, bronzes, and porcelains
ily
;

silks,

ribbons,

and wines were heav-

taxed.

This struck chiefly at

French commerce.

The

forbidden goods were ordered to be burnt.

Napoleon was

exasperated, and said, " I would rather have received a blow

on the cheek."

For some time Kurakin, the Russian envoy

leon,

at Paris, while

recognizing the fact that Russia could not cope with Napo-

had been advising a policy of intimidation by collecting

Accordingly
recalled
;

great armaments.

five

divisions of the

army

of

the

Danube were

a levy of four

men

in

every five

hundred was ordered to be raised, and the fortresses of the Dwina and the Dnieper were put in a state of defence.

A new
seemed
tions
lation

fortress,

Bobruisk, was

built

in

Lithuania,

which

likely to be the theatre of the war.

These prepara-

provoked similar measures by Napoleon.

in

Such an emu-

threatening precautions naturally led to a rupture.

as

As soon
reinforced

the "

army

of

Warsaw " was

put on a warlike

footing, the
;

army

of occupation in

Northern Germany was

Napoleon summoned some regiments from Spain,

;

and notably the Polish legions

towards Upper
Italy, the

the

army

of Naples advanced
;

army

of Italy towards Bavaria

in

the vast military establishment

Grand Army, which covered the entire Continent, from Madrid to Dantzig, a general movement from the West to the East was felt. The
as the

known

grievances
VOL.
II.

of

the

two emperors against each other were

21

322
brought forward
in

HISTORY OF RUSSIA.
some
lively interviews of

[Chap. XIII.

Napoleon,

first

with the ambassador Kurakin, and then with the aide-de-camp

Tchernishef, Alexander's envoy extraordinary,
sent
to "Paris

who was

twice

with

autograph

letters.

Napoleon received
ear,

Tchernishef in a friendly way, and even pinched his

passionately discussed
all

but

the questions relative to Poland, to

the Danubian principalities, to Oldenburg, to the continental

"blockade, to the ukas of

December,

to

Alexander's threatening
the

preparations.

He

at

once rejected

idea of

giving the

whole or even a part of the grand duchy of Warsaw as an " Expect nothing from Poland," indemnity for Oldenburg.
said

Napoleon,

in

an interview on his

birthday in August

" I will not give you a village or a mill from that country."

The mission
to Napoleon,

of Tchernishef was unsuccessful, but in February

and March, eighteen hundred and twelve, he was again sent

and thought to have accomplished great things,
;

but he compromised himself seriously

of the

Michiels, an employe

War

Minister, was shot

for

allowing

himself to be

bribed,

and for having delivered to him the estimates of the Grand Army, which proved, however, to be of very slight value. It was about this period that Napoleon ordered the
publication in the newspapers of a series of articles wherein
it

become the prey of must be checked, About this extinguished." the universal domination must be
to

was shown " that Europe was sure

Russia," and declared that " the invasion

time also Lesur published the famous book, entitled "

Progress of the Russian Power,"
first

Of

the

in

which we meet

for the

time with the apocryphal document called the " Will of

Peter the Great."

Napoleon recalled Caulaincourt,

sian,

whom

he thought too Rus-

and who, being conciliatory, was much embarrassed He replaced him by General with the part he had to play.
Lauriston,
der.

who

could not reckon on the confidence of Alexan-

Everything showed that war was inevitable.

Napoleon, was negotiating only

Alexantime

der, like

in order to gain

1801-1825.]

ALEXANDER

I.

FOREIGN AFFAIRS.
The rupture

323

and

finish his preparations.

all.

of the alliance was

patent to

At Murat's court the French envoy, Durand,

Alexander

fought a duel with the Russian envoy, Dolgoruki.

suddenly disgraced Speranski, the friend of Prance,

Araktcheef and other of his enemies had
traducing.
finally

whom

succeeded in

He was summoned
left

to the

Emperor's cabinet on

the evening of the twenty-ninth of March, and after a two

hours' interview

the palace in tears.

When

he reached

his home, the police were already occupied in sealing his

papers.

kibitka stood at the door, and without even tak-

ing leave of his only daughter, he was driven to Nijni Novgorod,

where he was kept under the

position

closest surveillance.

The

Emperor mourned
in his

as for the loss of a right hand, but placed

who prayed much and

Admiral Shishkof, a moderately talented man, fasted more, and confined himself to
Alexan-

simply accompanying the Emperor on his journeys.

der sent for Stein, the great
tal foe,

German

patriot,

Napoleon's mor-

who was

then, at Napoleon's instigation, under the ban

of the

Confederation.

Russia

hastened

to

conclude peace
for

with Turkey, and negotiated with

Sweden

an alliance,
side,

with England for a treaty of subsidies.

signed

Napoleon, on his

two conventions with Prussia and Austria, which assured him the help of twenty thousand Prussians and Swethirty thousand Austrians in the projected expedition.
den and Turkey would have been more certain
treaties
allies,

but the

of

Tilsit

and Erfurt had alienated them from the

Bernadotte had not

French;. Sweden had suffered, like Russia, from the continental

blockade, and the Prince-Royal

for his

pardoned Napoleon
for

refusal to give

him Norway, and

having occupied Swedish Pomerania.

On

the

ninth of

May, eighteen hundred and twelve, Napoleon left Paris for The ambassadors, Dresden, for the centre of his army. Kurakin and Lauriston, demanded their passports.

3.24

HISTORY OF RUSSIA.

[Chap. XIII.

THE "PATRIOTIC WAR": BATTLE OF BORODINO; BURNING OF MOSCOW DESTRUCTION OF THE GR*AND ARMY.
;

With the

military resources of France,

which then counted

contingents

one hundred and thirty departments,

the Rhine,

with the

furnished by his Italian kingdoms, by the Confederation of

by the

grand duchy of Warsaw, and with the

auxiliary forces of Prussia

and Austria, Napoleon could bring

a formidable

army into the field. On the first of June the Grand Army amounted to six hundred and seventy-eight thousand men, three hundred and fifty-six thousand of whom were French, and three hundred and twenty-two thousand foreigners. Reckoning the reserves, it amounted to eleven
hundred thousand

men. It included not only Belgians, Dutchmen, Hanoverians, Hanseats, Piedmontese, and Romans, then confounded under the name of Frenchmen, but also the
Italian

army, the

Neapolitan army, the Spanish regiments,

Bavarians,

natives of

Germany and Baden, Wurtembergers,

Darmstadt Hessians, Jerome's Westphalians,

half-French
Thurinirians, and Mecklenburgers.
shals,
it

soldiers of the

grand duchies of Berg and Frankfort, Saxons,

Besides Napoleon's mar-

had

at

its

head Eugene, Viceroy of Italy; Murat,

King
royal,

of Naples; Jerome,

King
all

of Westphalia;

the princes

and

heirs of

nearly

the houses in

Europe.

The

Poles alone in this war, which recalled to them that of sixteen hundred

and twelve, mustered

Other
Slavs

sixty thousand

men under
provinces,
to

their standards.

from the Illyrian

Kroats,

Karinthians,

Dalmatians, and
It

were

led

assault

the great Slav empire;.

nations," as
it is still

was indeed the " army of twenty

called

by the Russian people.

Napoleon swept

all

the races of the

by

movement

similar
to

Russia seemed likely

lanche.

West against the East to that of the great invasions, and be overwhelmed by a human avato cross

When

the

Grand Army prepared

the Niemen,

it

1801-1825.]

ALEXANDER
:

I.:

FOREIGN AFFAIRS.

325

To the left, before Tilsit, Macdonald was arranged thus with ten thousand French, and twenty thousand Prussians before Kovno, Napounder General York of Wartenburg Nev, the guard Oudinot, Davoust, leon with the troops of
;

immense reserve cavalry under hundred and eighty thousand men before Pilony, Eugene with fifty thousand Italians and Bavarians before Grodno, Jerome Bonaparte, with sixty We thousand Poles, Westphalians, Saxons, and others. must add to these the thirty thousand Austrians of Schwartzenberg, who would fight in Gallicia as mildly against the Russians as the Russians had fought against the Austrians Victor guarded the Vistula in eighteen hundred and nine. and the Oder with thirty thousand men Augereau, the Elbe

commanded by
Murat,
;

Bessieres, the

in

all

a total of one

with

fifty

thousand.

Without

reckoning

the

divisions
it

of

Macdonald, Schwartzenberg, Victor, and Augereau,

was
the

with about two hundred and ninety thousand men, half of

whom

were French, that

Napoleon

marched

to

cross

Niemen and

threaten the centre of Russia.

Alexander had collected on the Niemen ninety thousand

men, commanded by Bagration

Vistula, sixty thousand

on the Bug, tributary to the men, commanded by Barclay de Tolly:

;

those were what were called the Northern

of the South.

army and

the

army

thousand

On the extreme right, Wittgenstein with thirty men was to oppose Macdonald almost throughout
;

the campaign

on

the

extreme

left,

to

occupy the Austrian

Schwartzenberg as harmlessly as possible, Tormasof was placed

with forty thousand.
fifty

Later this latter army, reinforced by

the Danube, became formidable, and was destined, under Admiral Tchitchagof, seriously to embar-

thousand

men from

rass the retreat of the French.

In the rear of

was a reserve of eighty thousand men, Cossacks, and the militia. Only a few contingents of the militia, brave muzhiki
with long beards, were to figure posing total of
six
in the

all

these forces

campaign, but

its

im-

hundred and twelve thousand men could

3:26

HISTORY OF RUSSIA.
In

[Chap. XIII.

hardly have existed except on paper.

reality, to

the two

hundred and ninety thousand men Napoleon had mustered under his hand, the Emperor of Russia could oppose only the
one hundred and
de Tolly.
fifty

thousand of Bagration and Barclay

"

He

counted on the devotion of the nation.

says a proclamation of the Tsar, "

that the enemy,"

may

en-

counter in each noble a Pozharski, in each ecclesiastic a Palitsnin, in each citizen a Minin.

Rise, all
in

of

you

With

the

cross in your hearts

and arms
the

your hands, no human force

headquarters
generals,
lie

can prevail against you."

At the opening of
Alexander were
at

campaign the
Besides
his

of

Vilna.

had

there his brother Konstantin, his ministers Araktcheef, Balashef,

Kotchubey, and Volkonski, the chiefs of the Lithuanian

Sulkovski and Lubetski, and others.
refugees
of
all

nobility, Princes

were collected also

nations,

There
from
the

Stein

among

the Germans, the generals

Wolzogen and

Pfiihl,

Piedmontese Michaux, the Swede Armfelt, and the Italian

They deliberated and argued much. To attack Napoleon was to furnish him with the opportunity he wished;
Paulucci.
to retire

into the

interior leaving

a desert

behind them, as

Barclay had advised in eighteen hundred and seven, seemed

hard and humiliating.

ing the scheme of
at Drissa,

Pfiihl,

middle course was sought by adoptto establish to

an intrenched camp
it

on the Dwina, and

make

Russian Torres
minds.
Pfiihl

Vedras.

The

events in the Peninsula

filled all

desired to act like Wellington at Torres Vedras.

Others pro-

posed a guerilla warfare like that of Spain.

But while they

the

were wasting their time

to fall

in

vain

deliberations,

French

army crossed the Niemen and

Napoleon made
mation, "

surprised Vilna.

Barclay had

back on the Dwina, and Bagration on the Dnieper.

his entry into Vilna, the ancient capital of

the Lithuanian Gedimin.

He had

said in his second

"
!

procla-

The second Polish war has begun Warsaw had pronounced the re-establishment

of the

The Diet of kingdom

1801-1825.]

ALEXANDER

I:

FOREIGN AFFAIRS.
to Vilna to

327
the ad-

of Poland,

and sent a deputation

demand

hesion of Lithuania, and to obtain the Emperor's protection.

We can understand with what ardor the Lithuanian nobility crowded around Napoleon. The decision of the Polish diet was solemnly accepted by the Lithuanians. " This ceremony,"
relates Eezensac, " took place in the cathedral of Vilna,
all

where

the

nobility

had assembled together.

Polish costume, the

The men were

dressed in the ancient

women adorned
As
to the

with red and violet ribbons, the national colors."

Poles, properly so called, although Napoleon,

by dispersing

the

army

of
it

sixty

thousand men among the divisions, had

nothing could equal their enthusiasm
all hearts.
;

rendered

invisible,
filled

boundless hope
at the

The work begun

at

at Tilsit

expense of Prussia, continued

Vienna

at the

expense
!

of Austria, was to be finished at the expense of Russia

last

At

they were to taste the revenge which France had prepared

years
for the
gift

for eighteen

faithful

legions of

Dombrovski

This was the splendid

"

with which the Emperor was go-

ing to reward the zeal of his Grognards, his old soldiers of

the Vistula
!

The young
at

officers

had recovered
"
call us

their confi-

dence

in

the star of Napoleon," says Brandt.

Our
;

elders

might well laugh

sessed
;

our enthusiasm, and

mad and
we

pos-

we dreamed

only of battles and victories

feared

only one thing, a too great anxiety for peace on the part of
the Russians

We

had

in

our ranks numerous descend-

ants of the Lithuanians

fore,

who had fought a hundred years beunder the banners of Charles the Twelfth, Radzivils,

Sapiehas, Tysenhauses, and Khodskos."

mous

incapacity of Pradt at

However, the enorWarsaw, and the somewhat relittle

served answers of Napoleon at Vilna, caused a

hesitation.
:

This was his reply to the deputation from

Warsaw

" If I

had reigned during the partitions of Poland, I should have armed all my subjects to support you. I applaud all that you have clone I authorize the efforts that you wish to
;

make

all

that

depends on

me

to

second your resolutions,

323
will do.

HISTORY OF RUSSIA.
Bat
I

[Chap. XIII.

have guaranteed to the Emperor of Austria

States.

the

integrity of his

Let Lithuania, Samogitia, Vol-

hynia, the Ukraina, and Podolia be animated by the

that
I

same

spirit

have seen

in

Great Poland, and Providence will crown

In Lithuania the
truly national, since the people were

with success the sanctity of your cause."

movement could not be

not Poles.
Austria, of preserving

Napoleon, either with the

design of

pleasing

the possibility of peace with Russia,

to

or because he was afraid

make Poland

too strong, took

only

half-measures.

He

gave
;

Lithuania an

administration

distinct

from that of Poland

assembled a commission, which

voted the creation of a Lithuanian army, formed of four regi-

ments of infantry and

thousand francs

five of cavalry

and spent four hundred

in aid of their

equipment.

A national

guard

was

composed
to

of infantry for the towns, of horse for the country

watch over the security of the provision

trains,

and
last

to help

the

French soldiers

to

maintain discipline.

attempt to negotiate a peace failed.

sent General Balashof to Vilna,

To

gain time, Alexander

French army should

recross the

demanding that the whole Niemen before any negotia-

tions could be begun.

And
:

on his side Napoleon proposed

the abandonment of Lithuania, two unacceptable conditions If Naand the declaration of war against Great Britain. poleon, instead of plunging into Russia, had contented himself

with organizing and

defending the ancient principality

re-

of Lithuania, no

power on earth could have prevented the

its

establishment of the Polish-Lithuanian State within

limits.

former

The

destinies of France

and Europe would have been

a sort of nat-

changed.

The road which

ural pass,

led to

Vilna passed through

due

to the configuration of the

Dwina and

the Dnie-

per, the one making an angle near

Vitepsk, the other near

Orsha, thereby ceasing to bar the way to the invader.

sure, there

To be
the

were the raised works

at

Drissa on the Dwina, the

;

Torres Vedras of the learned

Pl'iilil

but the

place of

1801-1825.]

ALEXANDER

I.:

FOREIGN AFFAIRS.

329

camp was
flanked by

so badly chosen, with the river at the back, and

only four bridges in case of retreat, and was so easily out-

way

of Yitepsk, that

it

was resolved

to

abandon

it.

There existed
It

in

the

army immense
for the

irritation against Pfiihl,

against the Germans, against the multiplicity of

commands.
;

seemed out of place

Tsar to be with the army

thev

remembered Austerlitz. The Russian nobles made up their minds to induce him to depart Araktcheef himself, and Balasliof, the Minister of Police, respectfully represented to him that his presence would be more useful at Smolensk, at Mos;

cow, or at Saint Petersburg,

orders of the State,

where he could convoke the

both in

demand

sacrifices

and keep up the

clay

patriotic enthusiasm.

men and money, From that time Bar;

and Bagration commanded

to

their armies alone.

Napoleon feared
have liked

to penetrate into the interior

he would

gain some brilliant success not far from the

Lithuanian frontier, and overwhelm one of the two Russian

armies, but the vast spaces, the bad roads, the misunderstand-

growing disorganization of the army, caused all his movements to fail. Barclay de Tolly, after having given batings, the
tle at

Ostrovno and Vitepsk,

fought
at

fell

back on Smolensk
in

Bagra-

tion

Mohilef and Orsha, and

to

order to rejoin

Barclay retreated
erals

Smolensk.

held council.

There the two Russian genTheir troops were exasperated by this

continual retreat, and Barclay, a good tactician, with a clear

and methodical mind, did not agree with Bagration, who was
impetuous, like a true pupil of Suvorof.
for

a retreat,

in

which

the

Russian
the

stronger

and stronger, and

full

The one held firmly army would become French army weaker and
;

weaker, as they advanced into the interior

to act

the other wished

on the offensive,

of risk as

it

was.

The army was

on the side of Bagration, and Barclay, a German of the Baltic provinces, was suspected, and all but insulted. He consented
to take the initiative against

Murat,

noe,

and a bloody v

battle

was fought on August fourteenth.

CO
who had

arrived at Kras-

330

HISTORY OF RUSSIA.
the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth of

[Chap. XIII.

On

August an-

other desperate fight took plaee at Smolensk, in which the

town was burnt, and twenty thousand men perished. BarIn his retreat clay still retired, drawing with him Bagration. it was Eylau on a smaller Bagration fought Ney at Valutina
,

scale

fifteen

thousand men of both armies remained on the

that he

field of battle.

Napoleon
Russia.

felt

was being enticed

still

into the interior of

all

The Russians
" Tell us only

retreated, laying waste

behind
set

them.
fire

when

the

moment

is

come, we will

to our dwellings," said the peasants to the soldiers.

Smo-

lensk caused a loss of three days; but the Russians on their

side were astonished that the ancient fortress,

which had susseven-

tained

so

many lengthy

sieges in

the

sixteenth and

teenth centuries, had resisted Napoleon only that length of

time.
eyes.

the

The Grand Army was melting away before their very the Niemen to Vilna, without ever having seen enemy, it had lost fifty thousand men from sickness, deser-

From

tion,

and stragglers
to

from Vilna
thousand
thousand

to Mohilef, nearly

one hun-

dred thousand.

Ney was reduced from

;

thirty-six

thousand

men

twenty-two

Oudinot
;

from

thirty-eight

thousand to twenty-three thousand

thousand

to

fourteen

Murat from twenty-two the Bavarians, attacked by

dysentery, from twenty-seven thousand to thirteen thousand;

the Italian

division Pino from eleven thousand to five thouItalian

sand

the

guard,

the Westphalians,
less.

the

Poles, the
" ignoble

Saxons, and the Kroats had not suffered

The

and dangerous crowds of stragglers," as they were called by Brandt, encumbered all the roads, pillaged the convoys and
the magazines, with open violence plundered the villages and

towns, and did not even respect their officers

when they found

them
their

They had devoured Poland and Lithuania in At Minsk, whilst the Te Deum passage through them.
alone.
for

was being chanted

siers

the deliverance of Lithuania, cuiras-

had broken

into the shops.

In this march against

the

1801-

1S:25.]

ALEXANDER

I.:

FOREIGN AFFAIRS.

331

enemy

the miseries of the retreat might be clearly foreseen.

to
fill

Napoleon did what he could

already so sensible.
i

the voids which

were

He

ordered

Victor's

army

to

advance

ito

Lithuania, Augereau to pass the Elbe and the Oder, and

cohorts
cross

the hundred

of the national guards to

make them-

selves ready to

the Rhine.

In the north Macdonald

repulsed Wittgenstein, took Polotsk after a battle on the eighteenth of August, occupied Diinaburg, threatened to invest

Riga, and disquieted

Saint Petersburg

but

in

the

south,

Tormasof obtained some success over Reynier and Schwartzenberg.

In the Russian

army

the discontent

grew with the

to

retreat-

ing movement; they were always retiring,

buzh,

now on Viasma
Bagration
as

they

began

against

against

Barclay.

now on Dorogomurmur as much Then Alexander,

yielding to the
the supreme

common feeling, united the two armies under command of Kutuzof, of whom, indeed, he had
But Kutuzof had on
his side the remi;

a very low opinion.

niscences of Amstetten, Krems, and Dirnstein

it

was not

to

him that Austerlitz was imputed.

the old school, indolent

He
in

was a true Russian of

appearance, but very

and sleepy

judicious and very patriotic.

No

one understood better than

he did the Russian soldier and the national character.

Men
army
say-

needed hope above

eral

all

things.

His appointment excited genin

enthusiasm

the

rumor immediately spread

to beat

the

that "

Kutuzof had come

"

the French."

Happy

ings raised his popularity to the skies.

in review,

Passing his regiments

With such

soldiers," he exclaimed, "

who would
they were

think of beating a retreat?"

He
felt

ordered, however, a retro-

grade movement

but "

all

that in retiring

marching against the French."

was
to

They

recoiled, but only to

reinforce themselves, to await the troops that Miloradovitch

bring them, the Cossacks that Platof was to recruit

on the Don, the bearded militia that had risen at the voice
of the Tsar, the famous drujina of

Moscow, promised by the

Governor Rostoptchin.

33.2

HISTORY OF RUSSIA.
at

[Chap. XIII.

Kutuzof halted
seventy-two

the village of Borodino.

infantry,

He had

then

thousand

eighteen

thousand

regular

cavalry, seven thousand

Cossacks, ten thousand militiamen,

forty

and
sand

six

hundred and
or

guns served by fourteen thou;

artillerymen

pioneers

in

all,

one

hundred

and
to

twenty-one
concentrate

thousand

men.
five

Napoleon
thousand

had been able

only eighty-six

infantry,

twenty-eight
guns,

thousand cavalry, and

hundred and eighty-seven

pioneers or artillerymen.

served by sixteen thousand

This

was about equal to the effective force of the Russians; but his army, now tempered by the long march of hundreds of
kilometers, was
still

the most

admirable of modern times.

On

the

fifth
;

of

September the French took the redoubt of

Shevardino

the seventh was the day of the great battle, one

of the bloodiest of
tle

modern times

of Borodino

among

the Russians, while

battle of the

the

Moskova The front

flows at

Moskova in some distance from the field of carnage. of the Russian army was bounded on the right
Borodino on the Kolotcha
rose
;

was known as the batit was called the Napoleon, though bulletins of the
:

this

by the
the

village of

on the centre by
called

Red Mountain, where

what the French

the

Great Redoubt, and the Russians the Raievski battery, on the

spot

where now stands the memorial column

little

and on the
Tutchkof.

left

by three

redoubts or outworks of Bagration's, on the

site

of the monastery since founded

by

Madame

Be-

tween the Red Mountain and Bagration's outworks ran the ravine of Semenovskoe, with the village of the same name.

During the battle Napoleon remained near the redoubt of Barclay de Shevardino; Kutuzof, at the village of Gorki.
Tolly

commanded on
Bagration

the right

he occupied

Borodino, with

the forces of Miloradovitch, and Gorki, with those of Dokturof.

commanded

the

left

he occupied the Red

Mountain with the troops of Raievski and Semenevskoe, and Napoleon had the three redoubts with those of Borosdin.
placed

Eugene, with

the

army

of Italy and

the Bavarians,

1801-1825.]

ALEXANDER

L:

FOREIGN AFFAIRS.
Ney, with Junot and the
;

333

opposite the great redoubt

Wur-

tembergers, opposite the three small ones

Poles and

Davoust with the

Saxons, and Murat with his numerous cavalry,

left.

were to turn the Russians by their

right Poniatovski
rear

On

the extreme

was

to clear the

the division of Friant

woods of Utitsa. In the and the guard formed an imposthe Russian

ing reserve.

Profound silence reigned

hearts

in

camp on

the eve

of the battle.; religious fervor

;

and

patriotic fire inflamed all

they passed the night confessing and communicating

if for

they put on white shirts as

a wedding.

In the morn-

ing one hundred thousand men, on their knees, were blessed and sprinkled with holy water by the priests the wonderworking Virgin of Vladimir was carried in procession round
;

the front of the troops, in the midst of sobs and enthusiasm;

an eagle hovered over the head of Kutuzof, and a loud " hurrah " saluted this happy omen.
ble cannonade of twelve

The battle began by a terrihundred guns, which was heard one

Then the French, with an
irre-

hundred kilometers around.

sistible charge,

took Borodino on one side, and the redoubts

on the other
skoe,

Ney and Murat crossed the ravine of Semenovand cut the Russian army nearly in two. At ten o'clock
;

the battle seemed won, but Napoleon refused to carry out his
first

success by employing the reserve,

erals

had time

to bring

up new troops

and the Russian genin line. They recapCossack,

tured the great redoubt, and Platof, the

made

sudden attack on the rear of the

fight took place at the outworks.

Italian

army

a stubborn

At

last

Napoleon made his

great redoubt

reserve troops advance

again Murat's cavalry swept the ra-

vine

Caulaincourt's cuirassiers assaulted the

it

from behind, and flung themselves on

like a tempest, while

lost

Eugene

of Italy scaled the ramparts.

Again the Russians

the signal

their outworks.

Then Kutuzof gave

on
Psarevo.

to retreat,
to

and collected
hazard his

his troops

Napoleon refused

last

reserves against these desperate

men, and

to

334
"have
thirty

HISTORY OF RUSSIA.
his

[Chap. XIII.

guard demolished."

He

contented himself with

crushing them with artillery until night.

The French

lost

thousand men, the Russians forty thousand; the former

had forty-nine generals and thirty-seven colonels killed and wounded, the Russians almost as many, and they numbered Bagration, Count Kutaisof, and the two Tutchkof brothers,

among

their dead.

Napoleon
his

still

concentrated one hundred

thousand
thousand
tance
; ;

men

in

immediate

vicinity,

Kutuzof only

fifty

but Napoleon's losses were irreparable at this dis-

Grand Army was condemned to gain nothing by The novelist Tolstoi uses this expression, " The " Napoleon," says Brandt, the beast is mortally wounded." Pole, " had gained the victory, but at what a price The great redoubt and its surroundings offered a spectacle which surpassed the worst horrors that could be dreamed of. The
the
its victories.
!

ditches, the fosses, the very interior of the outwork,

was buried

beneath an

artificial

hill

of dead or dying, six or eight

men

deep, heaped
this defeat,

one upon the other."

Alexander, in spite of

named Kutuzof

field-marshal,

and

in the

churches

solemn services were performed as though a success had been

obtained.

Kutuzof retired
that they

in

good order, announcing

to

Alexander

had made a steady resistance, but were retreating to Moscow. He called a council of war at Fily, on one of the hills which overhang Moscow and the sight of the great and holy city extended at their feet, condemned perhaps to
protect
;

perish, caused inexpressible emotion to the Russian generals.

The only question was this, Was it necessary to sacrifice the last army of Russia in order to save Moscow? Barclay de" clared that when it became a matter of the salvation of
Russia and of Europe,
other."

Moscow was
artillery

only a city like any

officer

Others said, like the

to die

Grabbe, "

It

would be glorious
tion of glory."

under Moscow, but

it is

not a ques-

"many

feel

"But," said Prince Eugene of Wurtemberg, that they are held by honor to stop all retrograde

1801-1825.]

ALEXANDER
:

I.

FOREIGN AFFAIRS.
is

335

movements
earth, so

just as the

tomb

the end of man's journey on

Moscow ought
;

to be the goal, the

tomb

of the Rus-

it another world already begins." BenOstermann were in favor of a last battle. Kutuzof listened to all, and then said, " Here my head, be it good or bad, must decide for itself," and ordered a retreat beyond the town. Yet he felt that Moscow was not " only a He would not enter it, and passed city like any other." For the retreat also there through the suburbs weeping.

sian warrior

beyond

nigsen, Iermolof, and

were two alternative paths.

zof preferred that of Riazan,

Barclay advised that of Vladi-

mir, which allowed Saint Petersburg to be covered.

Kutu-

by which he could place himself reinforcements from the south, and keep the French from the route to the most fertile The event proved that he was right. provinces of the empire. Alexander had raised the militia in only this time to Up
on Napoleon's right
flank,

receive

sixteen governments

those of

Moscow, Tver,

Iaroslavl, Vla-

dimir, Riazan, Tula, Kaluga, and Smolensk were to furnish

one hundred and twenty-three thousand

men

Saint Peters-

burg and Novgorod twenty-five thousand.

every month.

At Tula seven

thousand muskets of a new pattern were being manufactured

Alexander had said

a

to

Michaux, "
to

We
of

will

make of Russia cow and all the

" impious

new Spain."

The Metropolitan
Goliath,"

priests

were calling men

Mosarms against the

Frenchman, the bold

who was

to

be

thrown

to the earth

bv the sling of a new David.

left

Alexander had appointed Count Rostoptchin Governor of

Moscow, and when he

power.
well

the city he gave

him absolute
the

This noble,

who
all

possessed a Frenchman's wit, was

classes of people, but affected

acquainted with

picturesque language of the peasants, and understood, as he

how to throw dust in men's eyes." The patriot Glinka compared him to Napoleon. His correspondence with Semen
said, "

Vorontsof, his proclamation of eighteen hundred and twelve,

his

Memoirs written

in

eighteen hundred and twentv-three,

33G
his

HISTORY OF RUSSIA.

[Chap. XIII.

pamphlet of the same year, entitled " The Truth about the Burning of Moscow," may be counted amongst the most curious documents of Russian history.
" I

do everything," he

writes to the Emperor, " to gain the good-will of every one.

My
of

two
all

visits to

the

Mother of God

at Iberia, the free access

towards myself, the verification of the weights and

fifty

measures,
sub-officer

blows with a stick applied

have won

in

my

presence to a

who, when charged with the

sale of salt,

caused the

muzhiki

to wait too long,

me

the confidence of vour

devoted and faithful subjects."

" I

resolved," he says, " at

every disagreeable piece of news to raise

truth
;

doubts as to

its

by

this

means

weakened the
it

first

impression, and

before there was time to verify

to

others

came which needed

be examined."

He

organized a regular system of spies to

false

watch over the propagators of

Freemasons, and the Liberals.

news, the Martinists, the

jealous of Glinka,

He was

who

Russian Messennevertheless admired him, and who ger " " unchained the furies of the patriotic war." When Alexin the "

ander came
Siberia any

to

Moscow and convoked

to

the three orders at the

Kreml, Rostoptchin caused kibitki

be prepared to carry into

who might

ask the Emperor indiscreet questions.

These precautions were unnecessary.

peasants, the merchants their
perial

The nobles gave

;

their

money

the reading of the im"

manifesto was received with enthusiasm.

At

first,"

relates Rostoptchin, " they listened with the greatest attention,

then they gave some signs of anger and impatience;

they

when

came

to the phrase

which declared that the enemy came

lips

with

" flattery on

their

and irons

in

their hands," the

their heads, they
tears of rage fell
I

general indignation burst forth.

tore their hail
1

they

wrung

their

They beat hands, and

the

down their fares, which recalled those of one man gnashing his teeth." At bottom,
to be

the ancients.

saw

government mis-

trusted the people, who, being serfs, might allow themselves

tempted bv the proclamations of liberty put forth by the

It

invader.

was

for this reason that

Rostoptchin placed three

1801-1825.]

ALEXANDER

I.:

FOREIGN AFFAIRS.

337

hundred thousand rubles at the disposal of Glinka, the popuThere was no need of the money, and Glinka relar writer.
stored the three hundred thousand rubles.

Rostoptohin invented good news

" Great

one day he posted up

never believing

Victory of Ostermann," another day " Great Victory

Sensible

of

Wittgenstein."

men ended by

him, but his bulletins had always firm hold on the people.
" Fear nothing," he said
:

" a storm has

pate

it

the grain will be ground, and

fools
;

beware of drunkards and

that

come we will dissibecome meal. Only they have large ears, and
;

whisper ridiculous things one to the other.

Some

believe

Napoleon comes

for

our good, while in reality he only

the soldiers expect to get

thinks of flaying us.

the field-marshal's
of gold,

He makes

staff,

he makes beggars expect mountains

and while they are waiting he takes every one by

the collar and sends

I

him

to his

death.

And

for this reason

to

beg you,

if

any of our countrymen or foreigners begin

to

praise him,

and

promise this or that in his name, seize him,

whoever he may
he a giant."

be,

and take him before the

to bring

police.

As

to

the culprit, I shall

know how

him
what

to his senses,

were

" I will

answer with

my

head that the scoundrel

I

does not enter Moscow.

ecy
If that is not

And

see on

base

my
'

proph-

enough, then

I shall say,

Forward,

drujina of Moscow! let us also march. And we shall be one hundred thousand men of war. Jjet us take with us the image of the Mother of God, one hundred and fifty guns, and

we

shall finish the affair together.'

:

'

After Borodino he again

puts forth this proclamation

many, and ready to sacrifice our lives for the salvation of the country and to prevent that wretch from entering Moscow but you must
are
;

" Brothers,

we

help me.

Moscow

is

our mother
In the

she has suckled us, nourof the

ished us, enriched us.

invite

name

you

to the defence of the temples of the

!

Mother of God I Lord, of Moscan, on foot

cow, of Russia
or on
vol.

Arm
;

yourselves in any

way you

horseback
ii.

take only enough bread for three days, go

22

333

HISTORY OF RUSSIA.

[Chap. XIII.

with the cross, preceded by the banners that you will take

from the churches, and assemble

tains.
I shall

at

once on the three moun-

be with you, and together

the invaders.
nal

Glory

in

heaven
die
!

for those

we will exterminate who go there Eter!

peace to those
to those

who

ment
the

who draw back

did not think of the possibility

Punishment in the last judg" The majority of the people of abandoning the holy city to

enemy without

striking a blow.

They

all

armed them-

selves as best they could.

The

arsenals were thrown open to

them, and with steadfast courage they waited the

command

to

go out against their

foe.

Meanwhile
at

forty

Frenchmen
at

or foreigners

who were

settled

Domergue, the direcMoscow, describes their sad journey. Rostoptchin made a certain Leppich or Schmidt work secretly at a wonderful balloon, which would cover with fire the whole French army. He removed all the archives and the treasures of the churches and palaces to Vladimir. When the Russian army left Moscow, he also quitted it, after cruelly slaying Vereshtchaghin, who was accused of having spread
transferred to Kazan.
tor of the

Moscow were

French theatre

jNapoleon's

proclamations.

Pie

caused

the

prisons

to

be

opened, took away the fire-engines, and ordered Yoronenko

to set

on

tire

the stores of brandy, and the boats loaded with

of
it

alcohol.

By

his

The burning own confession

Moscow no doubt arose from was "an event which he had

this.

pre-

pared, but which he was far from executing."

He

contented

himself with " inflaming the spirits of men."

Already the
all sorts
;

gates of the capital were crowded with vehicles of

every one emigrated

who

could leave the town.

at

The people who remained

illusions.

Moscow

steadily nursed their

When

the

first
it

soldiers

of the

Grand Army ap-

peared, they thought that

was the Swedes or English who

had come to their help. The pillage of the deserted houses began, and the populace rivalled the zeal of the invaders.
Napoleon
arrived,

and

tried

to

quell

the

disorder;

he ap-

1801-1825.]

ALEXANDER

I.:

FOREIGN AFFAIRS.
"
it

339
all,

pointed Mortier governor of the town.

lage
!

Above

no

pil-

"

he said

" you will answer for

with your head."

On September

fourteenth, eighteen

troops defiled through the streets of Bielui-gorod

gorod, singing the Marseillaise.

Staircase,

hundred and twelve, the and KitaiNapoleon ascended the Red

Tsars.
places.

and established himself in the ancient palace of the Almost immediately the fires broke out in many The night of the fifteenth of September was espe-

cially terrible.

The Kreml
clanger.

itself,

with the

artillery

the

guard, was in

Napoleon had
;

to

wagons of leave it, and

force his

way through
finally

the flames

he almost perished on the

road,

and

reached the Petrovski park.

The

courts-

martial

condemned about four hundred

fifth

incendiaries, real or

suspected, to death.

All was over with the French conquest

only a

of the houses
it

From

that time

and churches remained standing. was impossible to prevent the plunder of

the cellars, and of the buildings which were intact.

The Ger-

man

allies

were, according to the

Muscovites, incomparably

more greedy than the true Frenchmen. They deserved the name of " the merciless army," which was given them by the

common
Moscow
The

people

who

suffered at their hands.

clays

During the

thirty-five

that the

troops remained at
to a climax,

their disorganization

was brought

and

probably ten or twelve thousand

together a

men

perished from hunger.

troops began to eat the horses.

Napoleon, however, got

company

of comedians in the house of Posniakof,

held concerts in the Kreml, and sent

down

the decree from

;

Moscow
of
to Saint

regulating the Theatre Francais of Paris

but

in spite

all this

he was a prey to disquietude.

The plan

of a

march

Petersburg on the approach of winter was rejected as

impracticable.
peace, but
all

He

sent General Lauriston to offer terms of

attempts to open negotiations with Alexander

were unsuccessful.
of Poland, of

He

thought of declaring himself King

principality of Smolensk,

re-establishing the

and of dismembering Western

Russia;

he

studied

papers

340
relative

HISTORY OF RUSSIA.
to

[Chap. XIII.

the

attempt

of

seventeen

hundred and
the

thirty,

to see if

he could

not seduce the nobles by the bait of a

liberty of

constitution,
serfs

and dreamed of decreeing

the

and of raising the Tatars on the Volga, but lie was powerless, without means of action, without news, almost blockaded in Moscow. To the south the way was barred by
Kutuzof, who, having led seventy-five thousand men, wearied
with long marches and incessant fighting, into his

camp

of

Tarutino, was continually becoming reinforced by volunteers

from

all

parts of the empire.

increased by more than thirty thousand.

Don

Cossacks, Platof, enrolled

army had The Ataman of the twenty-six regiments and came

village of Vinkovo, on the

In three weeks his

to his aid.

As

the result of the victorious battle which Kutu-

zof fought with

Murat near the

eighteenth of October, the road to Riazan was shut; by the

battle of

Malo-Iaroslavets

on the twenty-third
to

and twentywaste.

fourth of October, the

free only the road
to

way

Kaluga was blocked, leaving

laid

Smolensk, which had been

safe.

Even

this

was no longer

The war
Pavlovo,

of guerillas, the

war

of peasants, the

Cossack war, had begun.

village of

Ilerasim

Kurin,

a peasant of the

assembled

fifty-eight

hundred men
burn

" to fight for the country

and the holy temple

to

of the mother of
all

God

against an

enemy who threatened

all

the villages, and to take the skin off

the inhabi-

tants."
fell on foraging parties and marauders they them by blows with pitchforks they hung them they drowned them. Wilson the Englishman relates that
;

The muzhiki

killed

they buried
thirty-five
chiefs,

men

alive.

In

the

single

district of

Borovsk
guerilla

hundred

soldiers

were killed or taken.

The

Figner, Seslavin, Davuidof,

Benkendorff, and
to

Prince

Kurakin, captured the provision wagons on the road

lensk.

Smo-

Dorokhof, with a band of twenty-five hundred

party of Cossacks, took Vereia by assault.

men

and

ant Vasilisa and Sudaruina

The peasNadezhda Durova gave warlike

1801-1825.]

ALEXANDER

I.:

FOREIGN AFFAIRS.

341

examples

to the

Russian women.

Cossacks already appeared

disguised in Moscow.

On
made From

the thirteenth of October, in the the ambulances and the eighteenth

left

first

snow, Napoleon
quit

the

first

convoys

Moscow.
thousand

to

the

twenty-third, ninety
six

combatants
combatants,
the town
tier

the city.

They took with them

fifty

hundred
of

guns, two thousand artillery wagons, and

thousand non-

invalids,

workmen, women, and inhabitants

first

who

feared the

excesses of the Cossacks.

after

Morthe

was the

last to leave

Moscow,

having sprung mines

under the Kreml.

Elisabeth's

palace

was

blown

up

gate of the Saviour, that of the Trinity, and the tower of Ivan
the Great were cracked by the explosions
;

there were

many
the

gaps

in

the

Kreml
likely

walls.
to
call

It

was a

cruel, useless revenge,

which was
wounded, of

down

horrible
left

reprisals

on

whom

twelve hundred were

behind.

The only road to Smolensk was opened by the battle of Viasma on the third of November, where Ney and Eugene, cut off from Davoust by Miloradovitch, defeated forty thousand
Russians, but themselves
the sixth and seventh of
lost

several

thousand men.

Until

November

the cold was endurable,

but the snow and ice

horses.

made the roads almost impassable for the The Emperor himself reached Smolensk on the ninth,

it was several days before the whole army was reunited. At Smolensk they found the shops plundered and deserted. The orders which Napoleon had given for collecting provis-

but

ions

had
to

been

neglected.

Hunger and
left

the terrible

cold

began

decimate the remains of the Grand Army.

Marshal

Ney, who commanded the rear-guard,

Smolensk on the

seventeenth, blowing up the walls and towers.

ance of Platof's Cossacks alone saved the rest of the

The appearcity. At

Krasnoe Napoleon was obliged

the assistance of Davoust,
cut
off.

to return

with the guard to

who was
to

in great

danger of being

Ney was reduced

lost,

such extremities that he was

believed to be entirely

but on the nineteenth of Novem-

"

31:2

HISTORY OF RUSSIA.

[Chap. XIII.

ber, having given battle to sixty

thousand Russians with a

body of only

six

thousand fighting

men and
ice

as

many

strag-

glers, he crossed the

Dnieper on the

and unexpectedly
to

joined the rest of the

army

at

Orsha.

From Smolensk

Krasnoe twenty-six

thousand stragglers

and wounded, two

hundred and eight cannon, and five thousand carriages fell into the hands of Kutuzof. Zherkievitch, in his " Memoirs," tells us how the old general, who had collected all these trophies almost without a
French where amidst the names of immortal battles he read that " What have we there?" he asked. of Austerlitz. "Austera
fl;i2;,

blow, triumphed in his success.

They brought him

litz

It

is

true
it

it

was hot work

at

at Austerlitz.

But

wash

my

hands of

before the whole army.

the

They

are innocent of

Austerlitz."

Again

camp

of the Semenovski, one of

for the

his officers exclaimed, "

Hurrah

Savior of Russia
It
is

"

No," said Kutuzof;

" listen,

my

friends!

not to

me

that the honor belongs, but to the

Russian soldier."
all

And,
Then,
his
I
offi-

throwing his cap into the

air,

he cried with

his strength,

"Hurrah! hurrah for the brave Russian soldier!" made communicative by the joy of success, he said to cers, " Where will the son of a dog lie this night?
already that he will not sleep quietly at Liadui
:

know

Seslavin has

word of honor. Listen, gentlemen, to a pretty fable that Kruilof the good story-teller has sent me. A wolf As to his enentered into a kennel and tormented the dogs. but it was quite antrance, he had managed that very well other affair to get out All the dogs were after him, and he was driven into a corner with his hairs standing on end, and
given
his
;
!

me

saying,

'

What
now

is

the matter,

my

friends ?

What

is

your

grievance against
doing, and
I

me? I am going

came simply to see what you were

away.'

The huntsman by
you are an old

this

time had hastened to the spot, and replied, 'No, friend Wolf,

you
cal

will not

impose upon us
I

It is true

ras-

with gray hair, but

am

also

gray,

and not more stupid

ISO! -

18:25.]

ALEXANDER

I.

FOREIGN AFFAIRS.

343

And, taking off his cap and showing his gray Kutuzof continued, " You shall not go as you have come, for I have set my dogs at your heels." The situation of the French army was critical. In the
locks,

than you.' "

north, Saint Cyr, after a bloody battle at Polotsk on the nine-

teenth of October, evacuated the line of the Dwina.

ald of

Macdon-

was

therefore left without support, expecting the desertion

his Prussians.

some of

In the south, Schwartzenberg had

retreated on

Warsaw, being more occupied with Poland than

Napoleon. Thus, Wittgenstein on
the

with
north,

the safety of

and Tchitchagof on the south, could hang on the Grand Army both hoped to come up with it at the passage of the Berezina, and to enclose it between themselves and Kutuzof. Kutuzof himself reckoned on this, and restrained the ardor of the most impatient of the Cossacks,
flanks of the
;

and of Wilson the Englishman, who

let all

What a shame to roam from their graves " They all believed that a breath would scatter what had been the Grand Army, but Kutuzof would not hazard what he had gained in a battle he left it to time, to hunger, and to winter. The cold, was destined to reach twenty-six degrees. A witty Russian
said, "

these ghosts

said that the

French were conquered

in

this retreat

by Mar-

shal Morozof, corresponding to our General Jack Frost.

In spite of Kutuzof, in spite of Wittgenstein, in spite of

Tchitchagof, the
ice,

and the breaking down of the bridges, the

of

French army crossed the Berezina near Studianka from the

twenty-sixth to the twenty-ninth

November.
still
it

The world

knows what

was a great success, a victory of the desperate. Surrounded by one hundred and forty thousand Russians, these forty thousand men
a price the passage cost, but

with the Emperor managed to cross.

Poles.

third of

them were

They continued their journey. Arriving at Sniorgoni of December, Napoleon, accompanied by only Caulaincourt, Duroc, and Mouton, quitted the army to hasten to
on the
fifth

Paris, leaving the

command

to

Murat.

Three days

later the

344

HISTORY OF RUSSIA.

[Chap. XIII.

army reached
fetes

Vilna, where some months previously splendid had received the restorer of Poland, the liberator of Lithu-

ania.

The

starving soldiers rushed eagerly into the houses.

:

Suddenly the cannons sounded on three sides it was the three Russian armies which had come up. Ney, with his four thousand " braves," protected the
After his departure there
frightful,
flight of this

tumultuous crowd.
Berezina.
;

happened

in

Vilna a scene more

perhaps, than the

filled

passage of the

The

city

was

with sick and wounded French

town, through fear of the

nearly every

house was crowded with them.

The Jews, who were very

Russians and

numerous

in

this

hatred of the French and Polish conscriptions, threw these

unhappy wretches out of the windows.

could easily kick to death the
the bridge of Friedland or the

The Jewish women

only lately taken

men who had

great redoubt of

Borodino.

The Cossacks,
defenceless

first

to enter the town, fell furiously

upon the
sutlers.

camp-followers, on the

women and

the

Then

a frightful

carnage took place.

piles.

Thirty thousand corpses

of the army, always pro-

were burned on

The remains

tected by the intrepid Ney, at last

recrossed

the

Niemen.
thousand

They

left

behind them three hundred and

allies,

thirty

French and

dead or prisoners.

CAMPAIGNS OF GERMANY AND FRANCE: TREATIES OF PARIS AND VIENNA.

After the extinction of the Grand

Army, Kutuzof and the

Chancellor Rumiantsof were agreed not to tempt fortune, but

simply to take the eastern provinces of Prussia and Poland, to

make

the Vistula the frontier of Russia, and to conclude a

peace with Napoleon.

" But," says

M. Bogdanovitch, " they did not

easily repair his losses, thanks

reflect

that

Napoleon could

to the strong

concentration of France in a confined space, to the rapidity

with which French conscripts were taught, to the great supplies of

war material, and

to the vast financial resources.

We,

1801-1825.]

ALEXANDER!: FOREIGN

AFFAIRS.

345

oh the contrary, had to assemble our recruits over immense

spaces,

and
all

our

finances

were

in

great

disorder.

Conse-

quences proved that even with the help of Prussia, then exerting
its

strength,

we

could

not

make head

against
then,

Napoleon
sions,

in the battles of Liitzen

if

and Bautzen.
?

What,

would have happened

had
allied

the Prussians, irritated at our preten-

themselves with Prance

Obviously Napo-

leon, reinforced

by Prussian armies and the Polish contingents, would have reappeared on the Dwina, and, profiting by the
eighteen

lesson of

hundred and twelve, would have acted

and
perhaps

with

more
"o
1

precaution

with

more

success."

Alexander, therefore, resolved to

find in the nations

which

were said
to vanquis

be oppressed by Napoleon the forces necessary

him, to

make

the security of Russia rest on the

;

" liberatk n " of the

whole of Europe

and following the ex-

ample of Napoleon, who had provoked a general movement from West to East against Russia, to raise the nations from
East to

West

against Prance.

his capital rendered

Stein and the

The burning of his palace and him inaccessible to all proposals of peace other German refugees did not allow him to
Russian
troops

forget his vengeance.

While

the

were invading Poland,

and

giving battle to the remnants of the Grand

Army

at

Elbing

and Kalish
re-establish

while Tchartoruiski was entreating the Tsar to

Poland, under the sceptre of the Grand

Duke
Fred-

Mikhail, Alexander opened negotiations with Prussia.

erick William negotiated at once both with
leon.

him and Napo-

He

disavowed General York of Wartenburg, whose

defection from the French at

for

Tauroggen had given the signal the Germanic movement, and who was raising Eastern

Prussia.

He
him

sent,

however, Knesebeck, disguised as a merof the Tsar.

chant, to the headquarters

Alexander

in

his

turn sent

Stein and Anslett,

who induced him

to sign the

Treaty of Kalish on February twenty-eighth, eighteen hundred

and

thirteen,

by which the two princes formed an

offensive

346

HISTORY OF RUSSIA.

[Chap. XIII.

and defensive alliance, " for the re-establishment of the Prussian monarchy within limits which may assure the tranquillity Russia furnished one hundred and fifty of the two States."
thousand men, Prussia eighty thousand
treat with
;

they were not to

and Russia was to It was try to obtain for Prussia a subsidy from England. only on the seventeenth of March, when Wittgenstein had
Napoleon except
in

concert,

made

his entry into Berlin, that the

King

of Prussia declared

war against Napoleon, and put forth proclamations " To my On the nineteenth of March, when to my army " people Bliicher entered Saxony, the two princes concluded the con! !

vention of Breslau

they decided to

summon

all

the princes

and

all

the people of
;

mon

country

the

princes

Germany to who

hasten to set free their comrefused

within

specified

time were to be deprived

eration of

of their territories.
:

The Confed-

the Rhine was broken up

to

a central council of

government was created

were
to

administer

the countries which

be reconquered, from Saxony to Holland, to collect

to organize levies.

the revenues assigned from that time to the allied Powers,

and everywhere

Meanwhile Napoleon had been displaying his usual activhe had set on foot four hundred and fifty thousand men ity his good cities of with more than twelve hundred cannon and Hamburg had made him Paris, Lyons, Rome, Amsterdam, The Confederation patriotic presents of thousands of horses. which was at that Saxony, of exception the with of the Rhine, It was with one time being invaded, prepared contingents. hundred and eighty thousand men and three hundred and fifty guns that Napoleon reappeared on the line of the Elbe, and
;

he might well count on crossing

the Vistula and the

it,

for in his strong places

on

Oder

Dantzig, Thorn, Polotsk, Modlin,

Kiistrin, Glogau, Stettin,

and Stralsund

he
of

had

left

garri-

sons amounting
of this

to nearly an equal number.

The weak point

conscripts, the

new army was

soldiers,

the great

number

youth of the

and the feebleness of the cavalry.

The

1301-1825.]

ALEXANDER

I.:

FOREIGN AFFAIRS.

347

veterans, the

innumerable squadrons of Murat, were buried

beneath the snows of Russia.

On

the second of

May,

at

the city of Li'itzen,

and on the

twentieth of

May

at

Bautzen,

Napoleon gained two hard-

fought and brilliant victories over the allied kings

present, but

who were

he captured neither cannon nor prisoners, nor

could he pursue the vanquished for want of cavalry.

entered Dresden, and re-established his ally the

He

King

of Sax-

ony

even Silesia was reduced to subjection.

In the north
insur-

Davoust recaptured
rection

Hamburg and
French
;

Li'ibeck,

which an

had

lost to the

the guerillas

who had shown

Never
at

themselves in Westphalia and Hanover were driven back.

The King
able
six,

of Prussia was singularly

discouraged.

to

put aside the recollections of eighteen hundred and

It is just as it

he remarked after Liitzen, "

"

was

Auer-

stadt."
vitch,

The

loss

of these

two

battles," says
alliance.

" loosened the

bonds of the

M. BogdanoThe Prussian

generals complained that their country was ravaged by the

Russians as well as by the French

those of Bliicher and his officers.

The

ideas of Barclay de

Tolly and most of the Russian leaders did not agree with

In proportion as the Rus-

sians increased the distance from their country, did they find
it

difficult to get

ammunition, and even food.

In

all

the space

included between the Elbe and the Vistula there were as yet

The soldiers were badly clothed and badly The habitual discipline of the troops was becoming lax. The condition of the Prussian army was no better." Alexander and especially the King of Prussia had reason to
no store-houses.
shod.

say to themselves that they were playing for heavy stakes.

In

his son-in-law to sign

June the Emperor Francis interfered and persuaded the armistice of Pleischwitz, of which
said,

Napoleon
this

" If the allies

fatal

do not

really
this

wish

for peace,

truce

may be

to us."

During

time the Rus;

sian

created

army was in fact reinforced and reorganized Prussia its Landwehr the two powers concluded their trea;

; ;

343
ties

HISTORY OF RUSSIA.
with England
;

[Chap. XIII.

the Prince of

Sweden became

member

of the Coalition, being attracted

by the promise of Norway

Kustrin, and

Moreau, another Frenchman, brought his talents to the help

Glogau were news reached Germany. AVellington had gained the battle of Vittoria on June twentyfirst, Spain was lost to Napoleon, and the English threatof

the allies

Dantzig, Stettin,
piece

besieged.

of

exciting

ened
its

to cross the

Bidassoa into France

itself

itself.

As

to Austria,
;

tendency to defection showed

Liitzen, Stadion

had been sent

time Bubna to Napoleon.

more and more after and at the same Negotiations were prolonged, and
to Alexander,
affairs, tried

Napoleon, discontented with the state of

to

in vain

approach Alexander
Austria at
last

Caulaincourt was not received.

transmitted to Napoleon the conditions of

:

the
of

allies,

which were

the destruction of the grand

duchy

Warsaw, and the

;

partition of

Poland between the three

courts of the North

as possible, within

the re-establishment of Prussia, as far

the limits of eighteen hundred and five

restitution to Austria of its Illyrian provinces, together with

Trieste

restoration of the

Hanse Towns

and the dissolution

latter

of the Confederation of the Rhine,

though the

was not

made

an absolute condition.
;

Napoleon manifested the most

lively irritation

he had the celebrated interview with Prince

nevertheless, he
at

Metternich in Dresden, in which he even charged him with

accepting bribes from England
that
a congress
;

consented

should assemble

Prague

to discuss the

conditions.

How

unimportant he considered
with
the simple instruction

the congress,

however,

is

seen from the fact that he sent Caulaincourt withto

out authority, and

wait

for

Count Narbonne, who arrived

truce had expired.

only a few

days before the

To punish

Austria's disloyalty, he deter-

mined that
with Russia
tion that

" not one single village " should

lie

be ceded

to

it;

wished

for a glorious

peace, but on the condi-

their possessions should

be the same as before the

not be reconciled, and

war.

Pretensions so opposite could

1801-1825.]

ALEXANDER

L:

FOREIGN AFFAIRS.
still

349

the allies increased their claims

further,

that the Italian provinces should be restored to Austria,

by demanding and
of

Holland abandoned.
sacrifice

When

Napoleon, on the fifteenth

finally

August, eighteen hundred and thirteen,

the grand duchy of
inces, Austria declared that

consented to

Warsaw and
it

the Illyrian prov-

was too
in

late,

and that

it

had

entered into the Coalition.

The

allies

had now three armies

thirty

Germany

that of the

North, under Bernadotte, encamped on the Havel, with one

hundred and
sians
;

thousand

Russians, Swedes, and PrusBliicher, posted

that of Silesia, under

on the Oder,

numbering two hundred thousand Russians and Prussians;

that

of Bohemia, under Schwartzenberg, consisting of one hundred and thirty thousand Austrians and Russians, which
its

had taken up

position

in

the

neighborhood of Prague.

Thus of the three commanders-in-chief not one was Russian. The Grand Duke Konstantin, Barclay, Ostermann, and Iermolof served under Schwartzenberg, Sacken under Bliicher, and Wintzingerode under Bernadotte. The old Kutuzof had left the army and died at Buntzlau during the summer campaign.

On
the

the other hand, the

Emperor

of Russia, before

whom

pale

sovereigns of Austria and Prussia were eclipsed,

the armies
to

seemed
lition.

to direct
It

was he who

the

and the diplomacy of the Coaend was to be the firmest

against Napoleon, the most thoroughly convinced of the necessity of his downfall,

war from Russia

to

and who, after having transported the Germany, would transport it from Ger-

many to France. To all these forces Napoleon opposed the thirty thousand men of Davoust who occupied Hamburg, seventy thousand
under

Oudinot

at

Wittenberg, and the one hundred and

eighty thousand which he had concentrated under his

own
Saint

command from Dresden

Cyr,
ISev,

to

Liegnitz, with

Vandamme,

Macdonald, Mortier, and Murat.

Pie fought a

350

HISTORY OF RUSSIA.
army
of

[Chap. XIII.

great battle with the

Bohemia
back

in the very

suburbs of
in

Dresden, on the twenty-sixth and twenty-seventh of August,

which the
guns.

latter

was forced

to fall

in disorder

on Bohe-

mia, with the loss of forty thousand

men and two hundred

all

The

allies

henceforth resolved to avoid

encounters

with Napoleon, and to fight his lieutenants only.

Napoleon had posted Vandamme, with twenty-five thousand men,

fugitives,
in the defiles of Peterswald, to in the events

bar the way to the

to recall

and

which followed forgot

him.

Vandamme

descended

as far as Toplitz, to cut off the allies,

but on the twenty-ninth he came up with the Russian guard,

which made a desperate resistance

lost six

even the musicians, the

drummers, and the clerks demanded muskets. Ostermann hundred men, and was so severely wounded in one
that
it

arm

had

to

be amputated.

Vandamme,

still

without

orders, retreated to

Kulm.

lie there found himself attacked

numerous as his own, and on the thirtieth of August was taken with more than half Kulm was almost entirely a Russian victory, due of his corps. It cost dear, above all to Barclay, Ostermann, and Iermolof. men, twenty-eight hundred thousand six lost Russians for the
and surrounded by
forces four times as

of

whom

belonged to the guard.

In his joy Alexander cov-

ered the Preobrazhenski, the Ismai'lovski, the sailors, and the

chasseurs of the guard with decorations,

and caused Saint

George's cross to be attached to their standards.

tion

The
to

Coali-

had

at last

gained

a success

which did much

encourage

the

army after the terrible defeat at the Saxon capital. About the same time Maedonald was defeated by Bliicher on the Katzbach, Oudinot at Gross-Beeren, and Ney at Dennewitz, At the battle of Dennewitz the French lost by Bernadotte.
fifteen

thousand men and eighty cannon

dear.

it

also

cost

the

Prussians

The Cossacks threw themselves

into

West-

phalia, and Tchernishef took Cassel and the archives of

King

Jerome.

Prom

that time the three armies pressed in a closer circle

VIEW IN HAMBURG.

1801-1825.]

ALEXANDER

I.:

FOREIGN AFFAIRS.

351

around Napoleon.

Bennigsen had just brought the Russian

army
itself

a reinforcement of sixty thousand men.

to

The French
allies

army, reduced
face
to

one hundred and sixty thousand men, found

with three hundred thousand

face

and
it,

twelve hundred

guns, which formed a half-circle round

and left free only the way to the West. Then Napoleon, whose army divisions were stationed at each gate of Leipzig,
so as to

command

all

the roads, fought the celebrated " battle

of nations," which lasted four days.

Alexander showed great

under the
fire

personal bravery,

remaining

almost

of the

French

batteries,

and hastening the

arrival of reinforcements

on the most threatened places.

the French
still

On

the sixteenth of October

maintained their position, on the seventeenth

allies

the two armies watched each other, and meanwhile the

reached their

maximum

of concentration.
:

On

the eighteenth

the battle began with renewed fury

the cannonade was

;

terrible than that of Borodino, says Miloradovitch

this

it

more was on
the

day that
Victor

thirty-rive

hundred Saxons deserted.

On

nineteenth the French

west,

army began
at

to

retreat
;

towards the

and

Augereau

the

head

Ney, Marmont,

the guard, and Napoleon in the centre, while Lauriston,

donald, and

MacPoniatovski formed the rear-guard, which was

premature
explosion
of the

destroyed by the

one narrow

Macdonald saved himself by swimming Lauriston was captured with thirty thousand men and one hundred and fifty guns Poniatovski was drowned. With him perished the hope of the regeneration of Poland by the hand of Napoleon intrepid, disinterested, and patriotic,
bridge over the Elster.
;

Poniatovski did not care for the staff of a marshal of France

he wished only to remain "the chief of the Poles."

The

Prussians,

who

detested Saxony, were anxious to take

the town of Leipzig

interfere,

by assault. Alexander was obliged to and managed to negotiate a capitulation with the

remains of the French troops.

prisoner in
his

As

to the

King

of Saxony, a

own

palace,

Alexander received him coldly;

352
he refused to
rejected
princes,
treat

HISTORY OF RUSSIA.

[Chap. XIII.

with him under the pretext that he had

the appeal

made by
persisted

the Coalition to the

in
his

German
Saxon
part of

and had
he
also

devotion

to

Napoleon.
last

Perhaps
prince
that the

wished to punish in him the

over Poland.

who had reigned

We

shall see, besides,

this

schemes of Alexander with regard to

Europe did not allow him to hold out any hopes to the King
of Saxony.

was the overthrow of the French there remained, as evidence of what they rule in Germany had lost, only one hundred and fifty thousand men, as garribattle of Leipzig
;

The

sons scattered

among

the fortresses of the Vistula, the Oder,

allies

and the Elbe.

contingent to
twelve
:

Each success of the

the

had been marked

its

by the desertion of one of the peoples that had furnished

Grand Army
Austria
;

of

eighteen

hundred and
;

after Prussia,

at

Leipzig the Saxons

the

French had not been able

ing over
the

to regain the

bodies

of

the Bavarians at

Rhine except by passHanau. Baden,

at nearly the

Wiirtemberg, Hesse, and Darmstadt declared their defection same time the sovereigns were still hesitating
;

whether to separate themselves from Napoleon,

people and regiments, worked upon by the

when their German patriots,

forced to adhere

had already passed

to the Coalition.

into the allied

camp.

Jerome Bonaparte

again quitted Cassel;

Denmark found
to

itself

Napoleon had retired

the

left

bank

of

the

Rhine.

Would Alexander
France
?

cross this natural frontier of revolutionary

"

Convinced," says M. Bogdanovitch, " by the ex-

perience of
leon,

many

years, that neither losses inflicted on

Napohis
to set

nor

treaties

concluded

with

him,

could

check

insatiable ambition,
free

Alexander was not willing simply

allies

the involuntary
till

of

France,

but

he resolved to

pursue the war

allied

he had overthrown his

enemy."

The

sovereigns

immediate march

came together again at Frankfort, and an Alexander, Stein, to Paris was discussed.

1801-1825.]

ALEXANDER

I.

FOREIGN AFFAIRS.

353

Bliicher, Gneisenau,

decisive
sired

action.
to

and all the Prussians were on the side of The Emperor Francis and Metternich debe only weakened, as his downfall would

Napoleon

expose

Austria to

another danger, the preponderance of Russia

on the Continent.

Bernadotte

insisted

on

Napoleon's de-

thronement, with the ridiculous design of appropriating the

crown of France, traitor as he was to its cause. England would have preferred a solid and immediate peace to a war which would demand exhausting subsidies, and increase its These divergences, these hesitations, already enormous debt. After Hanau, gave Napoleon time to strengthen his position. " the allies might have counted their in the opinion of Ney,
stages to Paris."

The relinquishMurat on his side was negotiating for the preservation of his kingdom of Naples, the relinquishment of Holland, of Germany, and of Spain, and the confinement
Napoleon then reopened the negotiations.
of Italy, though

ment

of Prance between
-

the Alps, such were the

its

natural boundaries of the Rhine

" Conditions of Frankfort."

and Napo-

leon sent an answer to Metternich, " that he consented to the

opening of a congress

at

Mannheim

that the conclusion of

a peace which would insure the independence both on land

and sea, of all the nations of the earth, had always been the aim of his policy and of his desires." This reply seems evasive,

but could the proposals of the

disloyal

allies

have been serious?

Encouraged by

ration of Frankfort,

Frenchmen, they published the declaby which they affirmed " that they did not

make war with

France, but against the preponderance which,

to the misfortune of

Europe and of France, Napoleon had too

Deceitful

long exercised beyond the limits of his empire."

assurance, too obvious snare, which could take in only a nation

weary of war, enervated by twenty-two years of

sterile victories,

and
fort,

at the

end of

its

resources

During

this

time Alexander,

with the deputies of the Helvetian Diet

vol.
ii.

at Frankwas discussing the basis of a new Swiss Confederation.

23

summoned

354

HISTORY OF RUSSIA.

[Chap. XIII.

Holland was already raised by the partisans of the house of

Orange, and entered by the
Prussians.

The campaign

of

France now began.

Alexander issued
those of the Rhine
cross the Rhine,

at

Freiburg a proclamation to his troops

" Your heroism has led you from the banks of the
;

it

will

conduct you

still

farther

Oka to we will

we will penetrate to the territory of the peowhom we have sustained such a fierce and bloody ple against struggle. Already we have saved and glorified our country we have given back to Europe its liberty and its indepen;

dence.

that
!

peace and tranquillity

whole earth

that
its

each

State
!

own laws much harm, and has therefore been subThe anger of God has overjected to a terrible chastisement. thrown him. Do not let us imitate him. The merciful God
government and

may reign over the may prosper under its own By invading our empire, the

enemy has done

us

does not love cruel and inhuman men.

Let us forget the

evil

he has wrought
glory of Russia

let

us carry to our foes, not vengeance

hate, but friendship,

is

to
its

and and a hand extended in peace. The hurl its armed foe to the earth, but to
Caulaincourt at
Freiburg,

load with benefits

lations."

disarmed enemy and the peaceful popu" Let us spare

He

refused to receive

declaring that he would treat only in France.

the French negotiator the trouble of the journey," he said to

Metternich.

" It does

not seem to

me

a matter of indiffer-

ence to the allied sovereigns, whether the peace with France

is

signed on this side of the Rhine, or on the other, in the

very heart of France.

Such an

historical event

is

well worth

a change of quarters."

Without counting the armies of

Italy

and the Pyrenees,

Napoleon had now a mere handful of troops, eighty thousand men, spread from Nimeguen to Bale, to resist five hundred
thousand
allies.

The army

of the North

under Wintzinge;

rode invaded Holland, Belgium, and the Rhenish provinces

the

army

of Silesia under Bliicher crossed the

Rhine between

1801-1825.]

ALEXANDER

I.:

FOREIGN AFFAIRS.
Nancy
;

355

Mannheim and

Coblentz, and entered

the

army

of

Bohemia under Schwartzenberg passed through Switzerland, and advanced on Troves, where the Royalists demanded the
restoration of the Bourbons.
for

Napoleon was

still

able to bar

some time the way to his capital. He army of Silesia he defeated the vanguard, the Russians of but at La Sacken, at Saint Didier, and Bli'icher at Brienne
first

attacked the

Rothiere he encountered the formidable masses of the Silesian

and Bohemian armies, and after a fierce battle on the first of February, eighteen hundred and fourteen, had to fall back on Troyes. After this victory had secured their junction, the two
armies separated again, the one to go clown the Marne, the
other the
Seine,

with the intention of reuniting

at

Paris.

Napoleon profited by this mistake.

left

He

threw himself on the

flank of the

army

of Silesia, near Champeaubert, where he

dispersed the troops of Olsufief and Poltaratski, inflicted on

hundred men, and took the genAt Montmirail, on the eleventh of February, in spite of the heroism of Zigrot and Lapukhin, he defeated the Russians alone lost twenty-eight hundred men Sacken and five guns. At Chateau Thierry he defeated Sacken and York reunited, and again the Russians lost fifteen hundred men and five guns. At Vauchamp it was Blucher's turn, who lost two thousand Russians, four thousand Prussians, and fifteen guns. The army of Silesia was in terrible disorder. Bogdanovitch describes how " the peasants, exasperated by the disorder inseparable from a retreat, and excited by exaggerated rumors of French successes, took up arms, and refused supplies. The soldiers suffered both from cold and hunger,

them

a loss of twenty-five

erals prisoners.

Champagne
obliged to

affording no

wood

for bivouac fires.

When

the

weather became milder, their shoes wore out, and the men,

make

forced marches with bare

feet,

were carried
on the

by hundreds

into the hospitals of the country."

Silesia

Whilst the army of

was retreating

in disorder

army

of the North, Napoleon, with fifty thousand soldiers full

356

HISTORY OF RUSSIA.

[Chap. XIII.

of enthusiasm, turned on that of Bohemia, crushed the Bavarians

at MonMery these Prussians made part of army of Bliicher, who had detached a corps to hang on rear of Napoleon. This campaign made a profound imat
:

and Russians

Mormans, the Wurtembergers

tereau, the Prussians at

the
the

pression on the

allies.

Castlereagh expressed, in Alexander's

presence, the opinion that peace should be

made

before they

were driven across the Rhine.

feel

The

military chiefs began to

that

uneasy.

Seslavin sent

news from Joigny

Napoleon

had one hundred and eighty thousand men

the rear of the
It
allies.

at Troyes.

general insurrection of the eastern provinces was expected in

Coalition,
it.

was the firmness of Alexander which maintained the it was the military energy of Bliicher which saved
after his

Soon

disasters

he received reinforcements from

offensive

the

army
;

of the North,
then, hearing

and took the

of the
arrival

against the
at

marshals

of

Napoleon

La

Ferte Gaucher, he retreated in great haste, finding an unex-

pected refuge at Soissons, which had just been taken by the

army of the North. Laon from the tenth

At Craonne, on March seventh, and at March, with one hundred thousand men against thirty thousand, and with strong positions, he managed to repulse all the attacks of Napoleon. At Craonne, however, which was one of the fiercest battles of the whole army, the Russian loss amounted to five thousand men, the third of their effective force Lanskoi and Ushakof were killed, and four other generals were wounded. The battle of Laon cost them four thousand men. Meanwhile De Saint Priest, a general in Alexander's service, had taken Rheims by assault on the thirteenth of March, but was dislodged by Napoleon after a fierce struggle, where the emigre commander was badly wounded, and four thousand of his men
to the twelfth of
;

were

killed.

The Congress
of February.

of Chatillon-sur-Seine was opened on the

fifth

Russia was represented by Razumovski and

1801-1825.]

ALEXANDER

L:

FOREIGN AFFAIRS.

357

Nesselrode,

and Metternich.

Napoleon by Caulaincourt, Austria by Stadion The conditions proposed to Napoleon were

its

the redaction of France to

frontiers of seventeen
allies

hundred

and ninety-two, and the right of the

to dispose of the

was

Germany reconquered countries without reference to him. to be a confederation of independent Provinces, Italy to
be divided into free States, Spain to be restored to Ferdinand,
to the
it ?

and Holland
than
I

house of Orange.
!

" Leave France smaller

Never " said Napoleon. Alexander and the Prussians would not hear of a peace which left Napoleon Austria and Still, however, they negotiated. on the throne.
found

England were both agreed not

to

push him

to extremities,

and

many

After Napoleon's great suc" It declared for peace. Castlereagh cess against Bliicher,
times proposed to treat.

would not be a peace," cried the Emperor of Russia " it would be a truce which would not allow us to disarm one moment. I cannot come four hundred leagues every day to No peace, as long as Napoleon is on the your assistance.
;

throne."

Napoleon, in his turn, intoxicated by his success,

After Montereau he forbade

enjoined Caulaincourt only to treat on the basis of Frankfort,

natural frontiers.

him

to treat

at all

without authority.

to his father-in-law, the

At this time he addressed a letter Emperor of Austria, trying ^o make

him ashamed of his w ho scarcely deserve

alliance with the "Tatars of the desert,

the

name

of

men," and tempting him by

the offer of a separate and advantageous peace.

He

after-

wards again permitted Caulaincourt

basis

to treat,

but only on the

of

Frankfort.

Caulaincourt
in

likewise
Italy,

demanded

that
at

Eugene should be maintained

Saxony
at

Elisa

Borghese

Lucca, the sons of Louis Napoleon at Berg, and the

King

of

Warsaw.

and, as fortune returned to the

solved on

These conditions proved unacceptable allies, the congress was dis-

the nineteenth of March.

in

The Bourbon princes

Avere already

France

Louis the Eighteenth was on the

point of being proclaimed at Bordeaux.

35

HISTORY OF RUSSIA.

[Chap. XIII.

Alexander, tired of seeing the armies of Bohemia and Silesia fly in turn

before thirty or forty thousand French, caused

the allies to adopt the fatal plan of a march on Paris, which

was executed in eight clays. Bliicher and Schwartzenberg united, with two hundred thousand men, were to bear down The first act in the drama all opposition on their passage.
was on the twentieth,
at the battle of Arcis-sur-Aube,

where

both armies suffered great loss in men,

but neither could

claim a decisive victory, though the Russians took six guns

from Napoleon.

The

latter

conceived a bold scheme, which

if

perhaps might have saved him

but which was his ruin.

Paris could have resisted,

He
to

threw himself on the rear of the

them the route to Paris, but reckallied army, abandoning oning on raising Eastern France, and cutting off their retreat The allies, uneasy for one moment, were reto the Rhine.
assured by an intercepted letter of Napoleon to the Empress,

and by the letters of the Parisian them the weakness of the capital.
leyrand to them.

royalists,

which revealed
all

to

"

Dare

"
!

writes Tal-

They, in their turn, deceived Napoleon by

their

causing him to be followed by a troop of cavalry, about ten

thousand

in

number, continued
of

march, defeated Mar-

mont

and Mortier, crushed the National

Guards of Pacthod
arrived in sight

in the battle

La Fere-Champenoise, and
forming the centre,

of Paris.

Barclay de Tolly,

first
;

attacked the

plateau of Romainville, defended by

Marmont

on his

left,

the Prince of Wurtemberg threatened Vincennes; and on his right, Bliicher deployed before Montmartre, which was de-

fended by Mortier.

The heights

of Chauinont and

those of

Montmartre, which were not defended by a single battery, were taken Marmont and Mortier with Moncey were thrown Marmont obtained an armistice from back on the ramparts.
;

King Colonel Orlof, to treat for the capitulation of Paris. govimperial all the Joseph, the Empress Marie-Louise, and
ernment, with an escort of three thousand of the best troops,

1801-1825.]

ALEXANDER
fled

I.:

FOREIGN AFFAIRS.

359

Paris was recommended " to monarch " the army could retire Such was the battle of Paris on the on the road to Orleans. thirtieth of March, eighteen hundred and fourteen, which,

had already

to the Loire.

the generosity of the allied

according to
to the allies,

M. Bogdanovitch,
and four thousand

cost eighty-four
to the French.

hundred men

In the morning of the thirty-first Alexander received the

deputies of Paris.

He

promised that the

in

allied armies

should

behave with the utmost propriety

Paris, that the security

of the capital should be confided to the National Guards,

that the inhabitants should be asked for provisions only.

and

He

made

his entry with great

pomp between

the

King

of Prussia

and Schwartzenberg, the Emperor of Austria being absent but the Parisians had eyes for him only, the one at Lyons
;

Emperor Alexander?" The and were not quartered on the inhabitants. Alexander had not come to play the part of a friend to the Bourbons Napoleon's fiercest enemy was least bitter against the French he intended to leave them the choice of their government. He had not favored
question being,
allied troops
is

"Which

the

maintained a

strict discipline,

any of the intrigues of the emigres, and he scornfully

re-

marked

to Jomini, "

What

are the Bourbons to

me ?

"
:

He
"

re-

proved by a witty speech the baseness of a Royalist

have waited
for

We

your Majesty a long while."

"I should have

come

earlier if I

had not been prevented by the bravery of

your soldiers," said Alexander.

He sent a detachment of the column of the Grand Army against the attempts of the emigre Maubretiil. He repeated in the
Semenovski
to protect the

senate that he did not

friend of the French,

make war on France, that he was the and that he would protect the freedom
to the

of discussion,

which tended

establishment of liberal

and lasting
the century.

institutions, in

accordance with the progress of

that

He

yielded

when Talleyrand assured him

" the republic

was an impossibility, the regency and Bernadotte an intrigue, the Bourbons alone a principle." On the

3C0

HISTORY OF RUSSIA.

[Chap. XIII.

second of April the senate proclaimed the dethronement of

Napoleon
acters

on the eleventh he wrote in almost illegible charact of unconditional abdication at

to

and signed the

Fon-

tainebleau.

Alexander had promised Caulaincourt

;

defend

the interests of his old ally of Tilsit

secure
lof

he chiefly contributed to

him the sovereignty of was ordered to accompany

you
will

the Isle of Elba. the fallen

Count ShuvaEmperor to this place

of exile.
sion
;

" I confide to you," said Alexander, " a great mis-

answer

to

me

with your head for a single hair

which

falls

from that of Napoleon."

dangerous

He

confessed to Cau-

laincourt that the imbecile conduct of the Royalists did not

seem

to

him

less

for the peace of

Europe than the

first

unreasonable wars of the Empire.

Every one knows what the French

Paris, in

lost

by the

Treaty of
to that

which the boundary of France was reduced

of

of the

first

January, seventeen hundred and ninety-two.

On

the third of

May, Louis the Eighteenth made

his entry

into the Louvre.

He

affected,

even with Alexander, the lofty

;

ceremonial of the ancient court

gave him only a chair, while

he seated himself on a throne

of Prussia and the

preceded his guests, the King

Emperor

of Russia, to the dining-hall, and,

seated in the place of honor, caused himself to be helped before

them.

Alexander paid

no

attention

to

these

points.

Like his ancestor, Peter the Great, he inspected with interest

the
at

monuments and

great institutions of the capital.

It

was

Vienna that the destinies of Europe were

d'Istria,

to be regulated.

At the Congress of Vienna Alexander was represented by

Razumovski, Nesselrode, Capo

and Stackelberg
the

he

had confided the discussion of Polish

affairs to Tchartoruiski
ally,

and Anslett.
sia,

On
;

one point he and his

King

of Prus-

were agreed
his

the latter asked only to get rid of his Polish

to unite the

provinces,

and Alexander desired

whole of Poland

under

own

sceptre,

and

to

fulfil

the promise he had

made

to Tchartoruiski

and

to the gallant

remnant of the legions of

the Vistula.

In exchange, Prussia demanded Saxony, whose

JS0L-1S25.]

ALEXANDER

I.:

FOREIGN AFFAIRS.

361
cannot see

king was to receive an indemnity elsewhere.

We

Bourbon king could have secured by sacrificing Poland to the King of Saxony, and by opposing a combination which, by establishing this prince on the left bank of the Rhine, would have given France a neighbor infinitely less
what
interest the

dangerous than Prussia.

the views of Russia and
of

Talleyrand, however, used the in-

fluence that he had acquired in the congress only to

combat
October

Prussia,

and
the
:

to

support the resistance

of

England and Austria.

to

On

twenty-first

Alexander took a decisive step

he ordered Prince Repnin,

that country to the Prusits

Governor of Saxony,
sian government,
territories of

hand over
announce

and

to

incorporation with the

Frederick William the Third.

By

his orders the

Grand Duke Konstantin entered Poland, assembled an army of seventy thousand men, and summoned Poland to the defence of the national integrity. Then Talleyrand, with the consent of Castlereagh, concocted a scheme of alliance between France, Austria, and England. This convention was signed January third, eighteen hundred and fifteen, but remained secret. Discord reigned in the Congress of Vienna Europe was on the eve of another general war. In one way or an:

other France was

bound

to regain its
its

place in

Europe

but

it

was a question whether

side of

interests

were

to be

found on the

England and Austria, now that Razumovski had formally proposed to establish the King of Saxony in its Rhenish
provinces.

At last the storm rolled away would content himself with only
that
it

Alexander declared that he

a part of Poland,

and Prussia
decisions of

would be

satisfied

with only a third of Saxony, with

seven hundred thousand inhabitants.

the Congress of Vienna

The other

the organization of the

Germanic

Confederation, of Italy, and the kingdoms of the

tries

belong

Low Counclients of

to

general history.

Nevertheless, the forma-

tion of

Germany

into a confederation in

which the

Russia, the allies of the imperial house, enjoyed an indepen-

362

HISTORY OF RUSSIA.

[Chap. XIII.

dent existence, and a considerable influence on the

far

diet,

was

more advantageous

to

Russian power and security than the

state of things resulting

from the war of eighteen hundred and

seventy.

Poland was again divided between Russia, Prussia,

.

and Austria
Vienna,

this

was the fourth

partition.

The

treaties of

however, provided that " the

Poles,

the subjects of

Russia, Austria, and Prussia respectively, should be given a

representation and national institutions
;

whose

political exist-

ence was to be regulated in the way that the governments to

which they each belonged should judge the most suitable." Krakof was pronounced free and independent. In all these
treaties to the

Russia gained only three millions of souls belonging

of Poland, while Prussia obtained five million
in

kingdom

Western Poland, Saxony, Swedish Pomerania, Westphalia, and the Rhenish provinces, and Austria ten millions in Gallicia, Germany, and
three

hundred and sixty-two thousand

Italy.

The power which had struck hardest

"

for the "

freedom

of

was the most poorly recompensed. The event which had suddenly smoothed the difficulties of the Saxo-Polish conflict, and hastened the signing of the treaThe ties, was the news of the return of Napoleon to Paris.

Europe

bad government of the Bourbons had realized Alexander's unfavorable predictions. The sovereigns and plenipotentiaries at Vienna did not hesitate for a moment; Alexander was resolved to pursue the

common enemy

to his

fall, if

he had to

spend

" his last

man and

his last ruble."

Bonaparte's couriers,

the bearers of pacific assurances, were arrested on the French

frontier,

and were prevented from reaching the sovereigns. In vain did Napoleon try to sow mistrust between the allies, and to win over Alexander by sending him a copy of the convention signed between Talleyrand, England, and Austria on
the subject of the Saxo-Polish affair. "
a

The
little

only result of this

As Albert Sorel says movement was to irritate Alexander

did not profit by

more against the Bourbons and Talleyrand. Napoleon Out of the eight it, and Erance suffered."

1801-1825.]

ALEXANDER

I:

FOREIGN AEEAIRS.

363
to to

hundred thousand men that the Coalition had prepared inarch against France, the Russian contingent amounted
one hundred and sixty-seven thousand
:

Barclay de Tolly,

field-

marshal since the battle of Paris, was commander-in-chief;

neef, Iermolof, Wintzingerode,

under him were Dokturof, Raievski, Sacken, Langeron, Sabaand Pahlen. In spite of the

news of the battle of Waterloo, on June sixteenth, eighteen hundred and fifteen, and the second abdication of Napoleon,
the Russians
still

continued their invasion of France.

Paris, he

When

Alexander reached
there, treating
it

found Bliicher already established

city,

as a

conquered

exacting a tribute of a

hundred millions, and preparing to blow up the bridge of Jena. Alexander was hailed as a deliverer by the inhabitants,

who were
support
in

terrified

by the Prussian violence.

He

protested

against the outrageous

demands

of the

Germans, and found

the wise policy of Wellington.

Both

felt

that to

restore the
to

Bourbons

to a

greatly

render this unlucky dynasty

still

weakened France would be more powerless. They

relatively the

could not this time prevent the pillage of the museums, but
the exactions of Russia and

moderate.

There was a reason

in

understood that

most two sovereigns the regulation of European affairs, and

for this
:

England were

these

especially of the affairs of the East, France

in

would be an
";

ally

the future, an obstacle to the exaggerated pretensions of

either side, at once " a

tial

menace and a protection

it

was essen-

to the equilibrium of Europe.

to
it

On

the other hand, Alexthe " territorial

ander did not care

obtain for

Germany

guarantees" which
" to

demanded. "Pie Avished," says Sybel, allow some danger to exist on this side, so that Germany,

having need of Russia, might thus remain dependent."

"A
it

Russian diplomat," says Pertz, "avowed ingenuously that

was not the policy of Russia

against France."

to give

Germany

secure frontiers
it

Capo dTstria
all

said openly to Stein that

was Russia's

interest to strengthen

France, so that the other

If

powers should not employ

their forces against Russia.


364
Stein used
of
all

HISTORY OF RUSSIA.
his influence with

[Chap. XIII.

Alexander

to cause the claims

the Russian patriots to prevail, other influences were at

to oppose him.
First, there

work

was the Due de Richelieu,

Russia, the founder of
to see

who had been

Odessa, and

the governor of

New

whom
in

Alexander desired

replace the wily

Talleyrand

the cabinet of Louis the Eighteenth.

his

Then

came Capo
wished

dTstria, Pozzo di Borgo, and

Greek advisers,
alliance with

who, seeing the Eastern question appearing on the horizon,

to secure for the

Hellenic

interest an

Russia against the narrow policy of Austria and England. Last came Madame de Kriidener, the widow of a Russian
diplomat, in her youth distinguished for her beauty,
before Alexander her mystic and

who

placed

religious ideas of absolute

justice, of greatness of soul, of forgiveness for offences, of uni-

versal

brotherhood, and
brilliant
in

who

in her

drawing-room, one of the

most

Paris,

surrounded the emperor with every

one France could boast

who was

brilliant

and seductive,
Recamier, and

Chateaubriand, Benjamin Constant,

the Duchesses de Duras and d'Escar.
It is
itself

Madame

an incontestable

fact, that

of

all

the allies Russia

showed

the least grasping.

officially

Here

is

the table of propositions

:

made
the

by each

member

of the Coalition

Russia, tem;

porary occupation of France, and a war indemnity

England,

same

conditions, and the return of the frontiers to those

of seventeen

hundred and ninety; Austria, the same, together

Prussia,

with the dismantling of the fortresses of Flanders, Lorraine,

and Alsace

occupation, indemnity, return

to

the
for-

frontier of seventeen

hundred and ninety, cession of the

The secondary states tresses of Flanders, Lorraine, and Alsace. of Germany and the Low Countries demanded the cession
of Flanders, Lorraine, Alsace,

"Such," says M. Sorel, "were the official propositions; the oral demands were quite another thing." " Look here, my dear Duke," said Alexander to Richelieu in eighteen hundred and eighteen, " this they wanted only is Prance as my allies wished to make it
and Savoy.
;

1801-1825.]

ALEXANDER
and

I.

FOREIGN AFFAIRS.

305

that, I promise you, they shall want always." showed the Duke presented a line of frontier?, which would have deprived France of Flanders, Metz, Alsace, and the east of Franche-Comte, which was even more than was allowed by Carlovitz, who proposed to Stein that France should be divided into Lamme d'Oc and Laninie d'Oil, after being robbed of its Flemish and German speaking provinces, or by the demoniacs who clamored for Burgundy and the ancient kingdom of Aries. Richelieu had just succeeded Talleyrand as Minister of

my signature,

The map

that he

Foreign Affairs.
lective

He

found himself

in the

presence of a col-

ultimatum of the powers, demanding the cession of

Fort-Joux,
Fort-1'Ecluse,

Savoy, Conde, Philippeville, Marienburg, Givet, Charlemont,

Landau,

the

demolition

of

Hu-

ningue, the payment of eight hundred million francs, and the occupation of the north and east for seven years. He dis" The Russians," cussed this ultimatum point by point. writes Gagern, " without openly opposing them, are working
secretly for the modification of the articles."

Richelieu finally
forts

succeeded in saving Conde, Givet, Charlemont, the

of

Joux and
nity to

and obtained the reduction of the indemseven hundred millions, of the occupation to five years,
l'Ecluse,
at the

with the addition of this clause, that "

short the term of occupation,
it,"

end of three

years the sovereigns reserved to themselves the

if

power

to cut

the state of France permitted

This was the treaty of

November

twentieth, eighteen

hundred and
occupation
sia
;

fifteen. Alexander left Paris. In the army of Champagne and Lorraine were intrusted to RusVorontsof commanded twenty-seven thousand men and
;

eighty-four guns

Alopeus had charge of the

political affairs,

and both
the official

lived at

Nancy.

Nikolai Turgenief, a

member

of

staff, has given us some curious details about the Russians in Lorraine.

3G6

HISTORY OF RUSSIA.

[Chap. XIII.

KINGDOM OF POLAND: CONGRESSES AT AIX-LA-CHAPELLE, CARLSBAD, LAYBACH, AND VERONA.

With regard to Poland, Alexander accomplished more loyally and more completely than the two other co-partitioners the somewhat vague obligations imposed on them by the
Treaty of Vienna.
After the farewells of Fontainebleau,
the legions
of

Dom-

brovski, commander-in-chief of

the

Vistula,

placed his troops at the disposal of the

Emperor Alexander,

the Poles hoped for the restoration of their counThe Tsar assigned Poznania as their place of assembly, and gave them his brother Konstantin as head. On the eleventh of December, eighteen hundred and fourteen, the Grand Duke addressed them a proclamation in French " Gather around your banners arm yourselves to defend While your country and to maintain your political existence. this august monarch is preparing the happy future of your country, show yourselves ready to second his noble efforts, even at the price of your blood. The same chiefs who for

from

whom

try.

twenty years have led you on the path of glory will

know

how

to bring

you back

to

it.

The Emperor
for

appreciates your

courage.

In the midst of the disasters of a fatal war he has

watched your honor survive events

responsible.

which you were not

Great feats of arms have distinguished you in a

struggle whose cause was often not your own.

efforts are

Now

that your

consecrated to your country, you will be invinci-

ble

Thus you

will

reach
the

that

happy position which

to
all

others

may

promise, but

Emperor alone can secure

you."

This proclamation, by which Russia adopted

the

glories of the ancient

army

of

Warsaw, was the most magnifidated

the
thirtieth
title

cent of amnesties.

In a letter of Alexander to Oginski, PresiSenate,

fifteen,

dent

of

the

Polish

of of

April,

eighteen

hundred and

he takes the

King

of

Poland, and speaks of the efforts he had

rigors of separation,

made

to "soften the

and even

to obtain for the Poles all possi-

ble enjoynienl of their national institutions."

1801-1825,]

ALEXANDER

1.

FOREIGN AFFAIRS.

367

On
As

the twenty-first of June, eighteen hundred and fifteen,

the cannon at

Warsaw announced

the restoration of Poland.

a delicate attention to Polish loyalty, the act of abdication

King of Saxony was published, as well as the manifesto of the new King of Poland. The army, assembled in the plain of Vola, took the oath of allegiance. The warlike blazon of the kingdom was wedded to the arms of Russia. The new constitution was almost the reproduction of that of the Napoleonic grand duchy. It contained a senate and a chamber of deputies the senate was composed of bishops, voievodui, castellans, nominated as life members by the king; the chamber, of seventy-seven noble deputies and fifty-one deputies from the towns. The necessary qualification was property taxed at fifteen rubles for the deputies, and at three hundred for a senator the former must have reached the age of thirty, the latter that of thirty-five. The electors of the deputies were
of the
;
;

proprietors above the age of twenty-one, priests, professors,

learned men, and artists.

years,

The
days.

diet

was

to

meet every two

to be passed

and

to sit thirty

Laws had

by

both chambers, and sanctioned by the king.

The

constitu-

tion declared the liberty of the press, with the exception of

one law which restrained

sible

its

abuses.

Amongst

the respon-

ministers,

we

find

some men of the former regime.

Sobolevski was Minister of Finance, Ma'tuszevitch of the Interior, Stanislas

Pototski of Education, Vavrzhevski of Justice,

Vielehorski of War,

The namiestnik,

or viceroy, was Zai'on-

tchek, a veteran of the Napoleonic wars.

peror's brother,

Konstantin, the

Em-

was commander-in-chief of the Polish army

Novosiltsof, imperial commissioner.

places of Poniatovski, leader of the Poles,

They had thus taken the and of Bignon, the

envoy of Napoleon.

The

ministers formed the council of gov-

ernment, and, united to the principal dignitaries, they formed

the general council of the kingdom.

Tchartoruiski could not

console himself for not having been chosen namiestnik.

Alexander's mystic notions soon, however, began to obscure

368
his liberal ideas.

HISTORY OF RUSSIA.

[Chap. XIII.

At the time of the burning of Moscow he for comfort to the companion of his youth, Prince Alexander Galitsuin, who was inclined to mysticism, and directed him to the Bible as the onlv source of strength, comfort, and peace. Henceforth the religious notions of the Emperor were changed, and a sort of Protestant mysticism began
had turned
to claim his attention.

Madame de Krudener, who had written a novel somewhat in the style of " Werther," having outlived
her beauty, was

was a prophetess.
spent the
brother,

now devoted to The Empress

religion,

and

felt

that she

Elisabeth, Alexander's wife,

summer of eighteen hundred and fourteen with her the Duke of Baden. There Madame de Krudener

became the firm friend of one of the court ladies, the Princess Roxandra Sturdza. In the letters which she afterwards " You wish you could only wrote her new friend, she says
:

express to

me
I

the

many profoundly
I

beautiful characteristics of

the Emperor's soul.

think that

already

know

a great deal

about him.
will give

have been sure

for a

long time that the Lord

I

me

the joy of seeing him.

have immeasurable

things to communicate to him, for I have suffered

much on

account of him
ceive them."

And

the Lord alone can prepare his heart to reagain, " Although the Prince of darkness do
it

his utmost to prevent

and

to

keep

at a distance

from him

those

who

can speak to him of things divine, yet the Eternal

will be victorious." These letters were shown to the Emperor, and interested him deeply. Madame de Krudener followed the Emperor to Paris, and we saw with what associates she surrounded him. Franz Bader, however, was the originator

of the idea of the

Holy

Alliance.

He was

man

of unusual

Philosophy in his eyes power and of very peculiar views. was better understood by the mystics of the Middle Ages than

by such skeptics

as Kant,

upon
letter

whom
to the

he looked with un-

measured contempt.

In eighteen

hundred and fourteen he

addressed from Munich a

Emperors of Russia

and Austria and the King of Prussia, suggesting the idea of a

1801-1825.]

ALEXANDER

I.:

FOREIGN AFFAIRS.

369

Christian Alliance founded on universal brotherhood and love.

Many

things conspired to
heart.
to

make Bader's plan bear

fruit in

Alexander's

In

Paris

Madame

de

Kriidener
it

kept

urging him

perform mighty Christian deeds, and

this

was

under the influence of

adventuress, and a magnetizing

quack by the name of Bergasse, that the Emperor wrote the first draught of the Holy Alliance, by which the sovereigns
were
to

agree to consider

all

men

as brothers,

and

to

remain

in a bond of perpetual fraternity, giving each other comfort

and

assistance,

and looking upon their armies and subjects

as children, at the

righteousness.

same time protecting religion, peace, and They then agreed to become the members of

one and the same nation in Christ, ruling in accordance with

the power intrusted
finally

them by God

in

his three essences,

and
it

allowing

all

other powers to join the Alliance on the

Inoffensive though
is

condition of recognizing these axioms.

monument and a curious proof of his temper at this period. Without doubt he meant it to be a mystic bond, and hence would allow none but the sovereigns to sign their names but Erancis declared that Metternich must become a party to it, and Alexander finally consented. The King of Prussia signed it
was,
it

made

a great noise in Europe,

and

a singular

willingly, but, as

Madame

de Kriidener afterwards bitterly

it,

complained, without laying weight to

tria

the

Emperor
" to a

of Aus-

without knowing whv, Louis the Eighteenth surelv with

;

smile

Castlereagh

refused

his

signature

simple

declaration of biblical principles, which

would have carried

of

England back

to

the epoch of the Saints, of Cromwell,

Later,
all

the Roundheads."

the

princes

and Europe were

invited to sign, except the Sultan

and the Pope, against

whom

the

theless,

Emperor had acquired a deeply rooted prejudice. NeverRussia had then in Europe a preponderating influence, out of proportion to its real strength and the number of its army. But it was Alexander who had given the signal for the struggle against Napoleon, and had shown the most pervol.
ii.

24

370

HISTORY OF RUSSIA.

[Chap. XI IL

severance in pursuit of the

never have crushed the

common end. Alone, he could man of destiny, the black angel, as

Madame
States of

de Kriidener called him, but without his example the

him.

His

Europe would never have dreamed of arming against skilful leniency towards France finished the work

begun by the war. Alexander was incontestable the head of Nicholas had to commit many the European areopagus. faults before Russia lost this place, which prestige and public
opinion had given
it.

Alexander's influence showed

itself in

the

congresses in

which the European

affairs of the

States

tried

to

arrange together the

date after the Congress

Continent.

The

first in

of Vienna

is

that of Aix-la-Chapelle in eighteen

eighteen,

which
this

regulated

the

relations

of

hundred and Europe with

for

France
of

country

appeared
" pavilion

sufficiently

quiet

the

occupation to cease.
Artois

This was not the fault of the Court

and

of

the

de

Marsan

"

but

their

famous secret note made Alexander only indignant.

visit

which he paid

to

In a Louis the Eighteenth, he said, " If

any of

my

subjects

have put him to

had committed a similar crime, I should But Richelieu gained his object, 'death."

the entrance of France once

more

into the

European assembly.
hunGerin

The second congress was

that of Carlsbad in eighteen

dred and nineteen, where the tone of mind prevalent

many was discussed. The disloyalty of the German who had forgotten the promises of liberty made in
hundred and thirteen
;

princes,

eighteen

that of

Frederick William the Third,

who had caused

himself to be absolved from his engagements

by the Prussian bishop Eylert; and the reactionary influence

of Metternich on the Diel of Ratisbon, had provoked
stir in
a

general

The young men and university professors, the liberal writers, and the former members of The the Tugenbund demanded the promised constitutions. the and murecstatic demonstrations of tin' German students, German
public opinion.

der of Kotzebue by Maurice Sand, shook

all

the cabinets.

1801-1825.]

ALEXANDER

I.:

FOREIGN AFFAIRS.

371

From
in his

this

moment Alexander's

character seems to change

the liberator of Europe, the champion of liberal ideas, submits

turn to the influence of Metternich

for their

he subscribes to

measures which have

liberties

aim

to deprive

Germany

of the

which he himself had promised

in eighteen

hundred
;

and

thirteen.

The

press

is

subjected to a rigorous censure

the universities are closely watched

and the

liberal professors

expelled

and the patriots of the war of independence, and Alexander's companions in arms, are obliged to seek refuge in
;

the France they had despoiled.

Soon the
stitution

stir

in

men's

minds spread through Europe.

its

Spain rose and imposed a constitution on

king

this con;

became an object of envy

to the

neighboring peoples

then broke out the revolutions of Portugal, Naples, and Pied-

mont.

As champion

of divine right Alexander

now defended
the

the contemptible petty

kings of the

South, Ferdinand

Seventh of Spain and Ferdinand the Fourth of Naples, who

had perjured themselves

to give

to their people.
to

He who

had wished

Poland a constitution, and

guarantee that of France,

opposed to the utmost the constitutional measures of Spain

and
First

Italy.

By

an aberration similar to that which Paul the

to interfere,
to the interin eigh-

had experienced, he thought himself obliged

remote regions, about questions foreign

in these

ests of Russia.

He convoked

a congress at

Troppau

hundred and twenty, then transferred it to Laybach, so King of Naples might more easily be present at it, be absolved from his constitutional oath, and provoke vengeance
teen
that the

against his too credulous

subjects.
to

Alexander was on the

point of sending an

army

Naples under the

;

command

of

Iermolof, the hero of Borodino and of Kulra

but Austria,
de-

always uneasy at Russian interference in

spatched Frimont,

Italy, hastily

who

put an end to the Neapolitan and

Piedmontese constitutions.

The Russian

flag

thus escaped

the doubtful honor of protecting, as in seventeen

hundred and

ninety-nine, the bloody Neapolitan reaction, and of sanction-

372

HISTORY OF RUSSIA.

[Chap. XIIT.

ing the vengeance of Austria against Pellico, Pallavicini, and

Maroncelli.

Iermolof rejoiced at

it.

"

There

is

no example,"
expedition
It is

he writes, " of a general appointed to

command an
is

being so delighted as

am

that there

no war.
to

by no

means advantageous
after

to one's reputation

appear in Italy

Suvorof and Bonaparte,

eighteen

who

will be the admiration of

future centuries."

In

hundred and twenty-two the Congress

the
constitutional
;

of

Verona took
threatening

place.

Russia sent, like the other powers, a

cabinet
of

note to

Madrid.

The

latter

returned a proud answer

it

was the French army

which was intrusted yond the Pyrenees.

Still

to carry out the wishes of

Europe be-

grayer events were at hand

in

the East.

The Balkan

peninsula, almost entirely peopled by the co-religionists of the

Russians, began to be in thorough commotion.

yoke bore heavily on

all.

complained of the violations

The Ottoman The Valakhians and Moldavians of the Treaty of Bukarest. The

Serbians, whose independence Alexander had guaranteed, and

who had been crushed by

Obrenovitch.

the Porte while the eyes of Europe

were turned another way, had taken up arms under Milosh

A young
secret

Greek by the name of Rigas conin

all

ceived the idea of freeing his native land, and founded the
hetaireia
;

this

brotherhood was spreading

;

the

provinces, in

all

the isles of Greece

it

counted already one

martyr,

its

founder, Rigas,

who was

arrested at Trieste, deliv-

ered up by the Austrians, and executed by the Turks.

What

was Alexander
verse ?

to

do

in

the presence of this

witli

awakening unithat

Would he burn
?

something
Great
to

of

crusading
of the

ardor which hurried

Peter the
act

the banks
to

Pruth

Would he

here

"according

the

principles

and
at

after the

heart of Catherine," as he said in his manifesto

his accession ?

Would
man

Serbia find

in

him

the liberator of

eighteen hundred and thirteen, or the president of the Congress of Carlsbad, the

believing in legitimacy at

all costs,

1801-1825.]

ALEXANDER

I.

FOREIGN AFFAIRS.

373

the champion of absolute monarchical rights, the theorist of the passive obedience of subjects
?

This seemed so impossi-

ble to the nations, that the Greeks refused to believe

d'Istria

Capo would not be supported. Ypsilanti could not imagine that the Emperor would seriously

when he
;

asserted that they

disavow him
populations,

he crossed the Pruth, raised

the

Rumanian

the triumph of Suvorof.

and succumbed at Ruimnik, which had witnessed Alexander might multiply his disPeloponnesos rose under Kolokotroni, and

avowals, but the

the Mainotes under Mavromichalis.

tion

The war

of extermina-

had already begun by the Mussulman riot at Constantinople. At the feast of Easter, eighteen hundred and twenty-one,
the Greek population were assaulted, and, as
insult the orthodox religion, the
altar,
if

the better to

Patriarch was seized at the

and hung
his

at the

doors of the church in his sacerdotal

robes.

The Grand

Vizier

amused himself
the Jews.

for

an hour by

seeing

corpse ill-treated by the Turkish

populace,

and
chil-

dragged through the

dren, were slain.

mud by

Three metropolitans,

eight bishops, thirty thousand Greeks, men,

women, and

Russia trembled with indignation.

Dibitch

drew up an admirable plan of campaign, which still deserves be studied, and which he executed in the following reign. Alexander exchanged diplomatic notes with the Porte, and
to

allowed himself to be lulled to sleep by England and Austria,

The massacres continued. Alexander occupied himself about them at Verona, at the same time as the affairs of Spain. The Russian people were aswhich did not desire intervention.
tounded, and attributed to the wrath of God, angry at the

impunity accorded to the assassins of the Greek patriarch,

first

the terrible inundation of Saint Petersburg, and soon the

premature and mysterious death of Alexander.

CHAPTER

XIV.

ALEXANDER THE

FIRST:

INTERNAL

AFFAIRS.
1801-1825.

Early Years the Triumvirate; Liberal Measures the Ministers; Speranski: Council of the Empire j proPublic Instruction. Araktciief: Politjected Civil Code; Ideas of Social Reform. Secret ical and University Reaction; Military Colonies. Literary and Scientific Movement. Poland. Societies
:

EARLY YEARS: THE TRIUMVIRATE; LIBERAL MEASURES; THE MINISTERS; PUBLIC INSTRUCTION.
the home INander's reign,
First,
affairs of the

empire, the early years of Alex-

succeeding to the hard rule of Paul the

and

liberal

had been a period of emancipation, of generous ideas, The Emperor had announced in his reforms.
and
after the heart of Catherine the
to free

manifesto on his accession that he would govern " according

to the principles

Second."

AVhen he managed

himself from the guardianship of

the conspirators of the twenty-fourth of March, eighteen hun-

dred and one, he surrounded himself either with his grandmother's ministers, or with

new men, young

like himself,

who
Like

shared his great hopes and his schemes of regeneration.

him, they brought to the regulation of

ence, but

affairs

much

inexperi-

immense

good-will.

Those who

at that

time most

influenced Alexander were Prince

siltsof,

Adam

Tchartoruiski, Novo-

closely united,

The first three were and Kotchubey. and were known by the name of the triumvirate. They knew Western Europe better than Russia; the English Tchartoruiski, a- great Polish constitution was their ideal
Strogonof,
;

1801-1825.]

ALEXANDER

I.:

INTERNAL AFFAIRS.
to

375

lord,

whose family had given kings

Poland, cherished a

dream

of the reorganization of his native country, under the

sceptre of the

Emperor

of Russia.

He
in

profited

by

his situato favor

tion as guardian of the

academic department of Vilna,

language

the teaching of the Polish

White Russia.

As

Minister of Foreign

Affairs, or intimate adviser of

Alexander,

he never

lost

sight

of the
to

interests of his nation, at

whose

head he hoped one day

place himself, in the capacity of

viceroy or namiestnik of the Emperor.

The
versed
freely,
;

tyrannical

measures of the preceding reign were

re-

the Russians were again permitted to travel abroad

to

and foreigners were allowed

penetrate into Russia.

freely,

European books and papers entered the country

censorship was mitigated, and

the

new

instructions ordered the

doubtful passages of a book to be interpreted in the sense

most favorable

to the

innocence of the author.

The

" secret

expedition," another form of the secret court of police, or of

the State inquisition, was abolished, and
its

functions handed
citi-

over to the senate. zens belonging to

and deacons, gentlemen and the guilds, were declared exempt from
Priests

cor-

poral punishments.

Grander designs were brought forward in the council of

the

young sovereign.

As an introduction

to the

code of the

empire, a sort of constitutional scheme was discussed, in which

the privileges of the supreme power were defined,
tions spoken of,
its

obliga-

and where the

rights of subjects,

and of the

four orders of the State, were in question.

sort of civil list

was established, under the name of "

his

Majesty's cabinet."

The emancipation The

free

of the serfs, as in the brightest period of

the reign of Catherine the Second, was the topic of the day.
situation

of the

Crown

peasants,

who were much more

assured'

and happy than those belonging to individuals, was by the resolution taken by the Emperor to make no
souls."

more donations of "

They even went

so far as to

devote a million of rubles yearly to the acquisition of land

376

HISTORY OF RUSSIA.
While waiting
for a

[Chap. XIV.

with serfs for the Crown.

more general

measure, Alexander put forth the edict of February, eighteen

hundred and
tarily entered

three,

into

which legalized contracts of freedom volunbetween the owners and their slaves the
;

individuals or the

communes who

thus acquired liberty while

class,

they kept their land, formed in

cultivators,"

Russia a new

the " free

who, with the ancient freeholders, became the

nucleus of a rural third estate.

nia
in

The German

nobility of Estho-

eighteen

hundred and

sixteen, that of

Kurland

in

eighteen hundred and seventeen, and that of Livonia in eighteen

hundred and nineteen, resolved

to anticipate

the needs

of the

new
;

century, so as not to be obliged to submit to

them

entirely

they took the initiative in the emancipation of Lett

serfs,

or

Tchud

in

order that they might consult their

own

interests in the operation.

" All the serfs of these provinces,"

says

M. Bogdanovitch,
sell

" were gradually to pass in an interval

It

of fourteen years to the condition of free persons.

was

forbidden to

them with or without land, individually or

them away, to hire them out, or to make them slaves by any means whatever. Their right to acquire In civil land, houses, and other property was recognized.
by
families, to give

cases they were in the

elected

first

two instances amenable

to

judges

by themselves and partly drawn from among them. Thus they had now only civil relations with their former masters; but as the latter had distributed no lands among them, the serfs were kept in a burdensome state of dependence upon them." Formerly they were slaves body and soul, but
possessed
livelihood

lands;

now
soil

they were

free,

but forced for their

as farmers

to continue to cultivate for others,

or

day-laborers, the
ancestors.

which had belonged

to

their warlike

The
family,

prohibitions of the former reigns against the sale of

slaves at auctions,

and the separation of the members of one

were renewed.

The abuse, however,

us
that

still

continued,

and Nikolai Turgcnief assures

there was a public

ISO! -1825.]

ALEXANDER

I.

INTERNAL AFFAIRS.
windows
his

377
imperial

slave

market almost

under the

of

the

palace.

Alexander also gave evidence of

the raskolniki.
"

good intentions towards

the edict,

Reason

and

experience," says

" have for a long while

proved that the spiritual errors of the

except by forgiveness, good
it

people, which official sermons cause to take only deeper root,

cannot be cured and dispelled

examples, and tolerance.

Does
to

become a government
"

to

employ violence and cruelty

were
projected
rather

bring back these wandering

?

sheep to the fold of the Church

than

These inoffensive
;

sects

persecuted

Alexander

visited
travels.

their settlements

more than once

in the course of his

sect of
in

dancing raskolniki were allowed

to celebrate

their

rites

the Mikhail Palace, and Prince

Galitsuin,

Minister

of Public Worship,

was seen honoring with

his presence the

absurdities of the priestess Tatarinof,

of her adherents.

and the sacred dances

In

political

institutions

two great innovations took place

in eighteen

hundred and two.

The

collegiate organization of
set aside;

the branches of the administration

of Peter the Great,

was

the colleges

which had succeeded the prikazui of the

now replaced by ministers, after the EuroHere is a list of the first ministry of Alexander the First War, General Viasmiatinof Marine, Admiral Mordvinof, a bold patriot and distinguished administrator; Foreign Affairs, the Chancellor Alexander Vorontsof, nephew of Elisabeth's great Chancellor Home Office, Count Kotchubey Justice, Derzhavin, the poet Finance, Count Vasilief Commerce, Count Rumiantsof, celebrated for his patronage of arts and sciences Public Education, Count Zavadovski. The number and functions of the ministers were more than once modified. Ministers of domains, of the Crown, of general control, of roads and bridges, and of the Emperor's household,
ancient Tsars, were

pean custom.
:

were afterwards created.

The second innovation bore upon another

great institution

378
of Peter the First,

HISTORY OF RUSSIA.
the senate,

[Chap.

XIV

whose importance had been

lessened by the formation of an imperial council, presided over by the Emperor or by an appointed minister. Ministers and

the general council lacked, however, one essential thing,

sponsibility.

re-

Autocracy abdicated none of

its rights.

On

one
.

occasion one of the councillors of Alexander put this question

"Sire,

if

a minister refused to sign an edict of your .Majesty,

edict be binding without this formality
?

would the
all

"

" Cer-

tainly," replied

Alexander; "an edict must be executed under

circumstances."

Alexander and his young fellow-laborers undertook a vast

reorganization of public education.
into six scholastic circles.

The empire was divided

that of Dorpat,

That of Saint Petersburg included

eight governments

that of

Moscow, eleven
;

the three

German

provinces

that of Kharkof, sixteen, with

the Caucasus and Bessarabia; that of Kazan, twelve, includ-

ing Siberia; that of Vilna, six

in

White Russia.

At the head

of each circle was placed a popetchitel, or guardian, ordinarily

a considerable personage, like Novosiltsof, Pototski, or

Adam
and
were

Tchartoruiski, charged with the protection of the schools

their general direction.

For the instruction of the clergy,

founded, whose
revenues were
sale of tapers in the churches.

ecclesiastical schools

obtained from the exclusive

these schools were semi-

Above

naries

next the

ecclesiastical

academies of Moscow, Saint

Petersburg, Kazan, and Kief.

in parish

The

laity

were
;

to

be instructed

and

district schools,

and gymnasia

to furnish masters,

the pedagogic institutes of

established.

Moscow and

Saint Petersburg were

The
;

universities of

Moscow, Vilna, and Dorpat

later, that

were reorganized
lishing

those of Kazan and Kharkof, and,

of Saint Petersburg,

were founded.
listing.

There was
Fifteen

a plan of estab-

two

at

Tobolsk and

government schools,

or corps of cadets, were also founded, where the

young nobles

could receive a military education.

at Tsarskoe-Selo, afterwards

The Alexander Lyceum

transferred to Kamennui-Ostrof,

1801-1825.]

ALEXANDER

I.

INTERNAL AFFAIRS.

379
also dates
at Odessa,

was

built for the

same purpose.

the lyceum of commerce, or

From this epoch Gymnasium Richelieu,

and the Lazaref

Institute, or school for Oriental languages.

SPERANSKI: COUNCIL OF THE EMPIRE; SCHEME OF THE CIVIL CODE; IDEAS OF SOCIAL REFORM.
From
eighteen hundred and six to eighteen. hundred and

twelve the preponderating influence over Alexander was that

of Speranski.

The son of

a village priest, educated at a semi-

nary, then mathematical

and philosophical professor

at the

school of Alexander Nevski, preceptor to the children of Alexis

Kurakin, by whose means he quitted the ecclesiastical career

for the civil service,

he became secretary to Troshtchinski,

who

was

at

that time chancellor of the imperial council.

Later,

when
State,

director of the department of the Interior under Prince

to

Kotchubey, Speranski succeeded

the post of Secretary of

and began

to enjoy the absolute confidence of the

Em-

peror.

The

favorites of the preceding period

were

all

imbued

with English ideas; Speranski, on the contrary, loved France,

a deep admiration for Napoleon.

had imbibed the principles of the Revolution, and entertained These French sympathies, then

shared by Alexander the First, formed a fresh bond between

a bond which was severed by Emperor and Napoleon. " Besides," says M. Bogdanovitch, " we know the inclinations of Alexander for representative forms and constitutional governments,

the prince

and the

minister,

the rupture between the

which could not

ecstasies

fail to

seduce the former disciple of Laharpe

but this taste resembled that of a dilettante

over a beautiful picture.

who

goes into

Alexander had promptly

allowed this dream to be

convinced himself that neither the vast extent of Russia, nor

the constitution of civil
realized.
society,

He

therefore deferred

the execution of his Utopia

from day

to day,

but delighted

to

hold conversations with his

friends about his projected constitution

and the disadvantages

the

of absolutism.

Speranski, to please

Emperor, showed

380

HISTORY OF RUSSIA.

[Chap. XIV.

himself the ardent defender of the principles of liberty, and thereby was exposed to accusations of entertaining anarchical

and scheming against the institutions consecrated by Hard-working, well-educated, both time and manners." patriotic and humane, he would have been the man to realize all that was practicable in Alexander's Utopian schemes.
ideas,

Speranski. presented a systematic plan of reforms to his

sovereign.

extensive privileges.

The Council of the Empire received still more Composed of the chief dignitaries of measure the legislative power it some became in the State, it had to examine all the new laws, the extraordinary measures,
;

the relations of the

a

ministers.

It

was a kind of sketch of

of

representative

government.
four

The Council
war,

the

Empire
political

was

divided
civil

into

departments:

law,

economy,

and

ecclesiastical affairs.
officials

Alexander solemnly

opened

this

parliament of

on the thirteenth of January,

eighteen hundred and ten.

retary of the

Speranski was nominated secAll

affairs

Council of the Empire.

passed

through
Minister.

his

hands
his

he

became

in

To

mind, the Council of

manner the Prime the Empire being at

same rank

the head of the legislation, and the ministers at the head of the administration, the Senate ought to occupy the
in

the judicial order.

As

the legislative power had been re-

organized by the reform of the council, and the administrative

power by the reform of the ministry, so the judicial power, in The tribunals, its turn, ought to undergo a complete change. in his opinion, ought to be composed of judges partly nomiIt was nated by the monarch, partly elected by the nobles.
plain

that

Speranski had

studied

the laws

of the

French

assemblies, the system of Sieves and the Constitution of the

year eight.

The

judicial

was

to

be followed by a financial

reform.

Already, by the edict of the fourteenth of February,

ten, the

eighteen hundred and

assignats were recognized as

to

put

of the national debt,

and were

be guaranteed by the

imposition of

new

taxes; the emission of paper

money was

to

1801-1825.]

ALEXANDER
;

I.:

INTERNAL AFFAIRS.
to
to

381

be restrained
for the

the budget

was

be published, and a fund be created.

Speranski, in

redemption of the bonds

in his

short,

had

mind something
had undertaken

like the

French Grand Livre

of the public debt and the budget of the Western States. a minor task he

that legacy of the French Revolution, Code Napoleon which had at that time been adopted by Holland, Italy, the Bund, and the grand duchy of Warsaw seemed the very

the

to codify the laws.

As To him

model of
Erfurt,

all

progressive legislation.

After the interview at

particular
attention,

where Napoleon

showed him

Speranski had been exchanging letters with the French legal

writers,

Locre, Legras,

Dupont de Nemours, and had made

them correspondents of the legislative commission of the Council of the Empire. The Code Napoleon could suit only a homogeneous nation, free from personal and feudal servitude, where every one enjoyed a certain equality before the law. Thus Speranski looked on the emancipation of the serfs ho
the corner-stone of his building
t

middle

class, of limiting the

he dreamed of forming a numbers of the privileged classes,

;

and of forming an aristocracy of great families like the English peerage. As early as eighteen hundred and nine he had
decided that persons holding university degrees should enjoy
certain advantages over others,

when

aspiring to the degrees

a level with the

of the Tchin.

Thus

a doctor

would be on
his

eighth rank, a master of arts with the ninth, a

man

of master's

standing

who had

not taken

degree with the tenth, a

bachelor of arts with the twelfth.

Speranski, like Turgot, the minister of Louis the Eighteenth,

and

like

Stein, the Prussian

reformer, set every one in arms

against him.

The nobles

of the court and of the antechamber,

the "sweepers of the parquets," as Alexander called them,

and the young

solely to favor,

officials who wished to owe their promotion were exasperated by the edict of eighteen hun-

dred and nine.

The

proprietors were alarmed at Speranski's

serfs
;

schemes

for the

emancipation of the

the senators were

382
irritated
first

HISTORY OF RUSSIA.
by
his

[Chap. XIV.

plan of reorganization,

which

reduced the

order of the empire

;

to the position of a

supreme court of

justice

the high aristocracy were indignant at the boldness

of low extraction, the son of a village priest.

of a

man

The
All

people themselves

murmured

at the increase of the taxes.

these injured interests leagued themselves against him.

The
as a

minister was accused of despising the institutions of Muscovy,

of daring to present to the Russians the

Code Napoleon

model, the country being

with France.

at that

time on the eve of a war

The

ministers Balashef, Armfelt, Gurief, Count

Rostoptchin, and the Grand Duchess Ekaterina Pavlovna, the

Emperor's
torian

sister,

influenced Alexander against him.

to

The

his-

Karamsm addressed

his

sovereign his enthusiastic

in

essay on

New

and Ancient Russia,

which he made himself

the champion of serfage, of the old laws, and of autocracy.

They went the length

of denouncing Speranski as a traitor

and accomplice of France.

In March, eighteen hundred

twelve, he suddenly vanished from the capital

and and went as

In

governor to Nijni-Novgorod, but was shortly afterwards deprived of his post, and subjected to a close surveillance.
eighteen

hundred and nineteen, when passions had calmed down, he was nominated governor of Siberia, where he was
able to render important services.

In eighteen hundred and

re-

twenty-one he returned to Saint Petersburg, but without

covering his former position.

ARAKTCHEEF: POLITICAL AND UNIVERSITY REACTION; MILITARY COLONIES.

Another period, another season, had begun.
of Speranskiplaces of the highest trust
Arakteheel', the

The enemies

Armfelt, Shishkof, and Rostoptchin

;

were
all

in

but the favorite above

was
all

rough

" corporal of

Gatchina," the instrument

of all

of Paul's

tyranny, the born

enemy

new

ideas

and

thoughts of reform, the apostle of absolute power and passive

^Wedienee.
lie
first

gained the confidence of Alexander by

1801-1825.]

ALEXANDER

I.:

INTERNAL AFFAIRS.
;

3S3

his devotion to the

memory
his

of Paul

next by his punctuality,

his

prompt obedience,

disinterestedness

and habits

ot

work, and by the naive admiration which he showed for the

" genius of the Emperor."

He was

the safest of servants, the

most imperious of superiors, and the instrument best fitted for His influence was not at first exclusive. After a reaction. having conquered Napoleon, Alexander liked to think himself
the liberator of nations.

He
it

had freed Germany

;

he spared

France, and obtained for

tion to Poland,

a charter

he granted a constitubenefit to Russia.

severe,

and meant

to

extend

its

If
for-

the censorship of the press

had become more

and

bade the Viestnik Slovesnosti, the Courier of Belle Letters, to criticise " his Majesty's servants," Alexander had not yet re-

nounced
were

all

his Utopias.

To

the French influence succeeded

the Protestant and

shut,

English influence.
Societies

and

Bible

The French theatres opened. The British and

the capital, received

Foreign Bible Society established

itself in

subscriptions amounting to three hundred thousand rubles, and published five hundred thousand volumes in fifty different

languages.

The Russian Bible

at

Society, with

its

offshoot, the

Cossack Bible Society

that the influence of

Tcherkask, published hundreds of

It

thousands of copies of the holy books.

was

at this

time

Madame

de Kriidener, and a revival of

the terrible memories of March, eighteen

hundred and one,

made Alexander
old Allen.

of Quakers, prayed

He dreamy mystic. and wept with them, and kissed the hand of
received a deputation
first

Notwithstanding, the

epoch of the ministry

If at present there

of Araktcheef was an epoch of sterility.

were no reaction, everything had

at least

come

to a standstill.

hundred and twelve had interrupted the reforms which had been begun, and they were not resumed. There was an end of the Code of Speranski, and the efforts to

The war

of eighteen

compile another more suitable to the Russian traditions came

to nothing.

The

character of Alexander soon sadly changed.

He grew

3S4

HISTORY OF RUSSIA.
His
last illusions

[Chap. XIV.

gloomy and suspicious.

liberal ideas

had flown,

Lis last

were dissipated.
that

After the congresses of Aix-laIt

Chapelle and Troppau, he was no longer the same man.

was

at

Troppau

Metternich announced'

to

him, with

calculated
favorite

exaggeration, the mutiny of the Semenovski, his

regiment of guards.

From

that time he considered

himself the dupe of his generous ideas, and the victim of universal ingratitude.

He

had wished

to liberate
:

Germany, and
Kotzebue,

German

opinion turned against

him

his pensioner,

He had sought had been assassinated by Maurice Sand. and vanquished France, at Aix-la-Chapelle the sympathy of a He had longed to French plot was discovered against him.
restore Poland,

and Poland desired only

to

be completely

free,

while Russia demanded an explanation from Alexander of the

new

clanger he had created on his frontier, by the reconstruc-

tion of the Lekhite

kingdom.

It

was

at this

moment

that the

became an alliance against popular liberty at Carlsbad, at Laybach, and at Verona, AlexIn ander was already the leader of the European reaction. Russia he owned the Ypsilanti in disavowed the East he The Araktcheevinfluence of Araktcheef and the Obscurants.

Holy Alliance

of the sovereigns

tchina had begun.

Remonstrated with by Archbishop Serafim, Alexander broke

with the Bible Societies, and forced his old friend, Prince
Galitsuin, the liberal
tion,

and

tolerant Minister of Public Instruc-

to resign.

Galitsuin was replaced

strict.

by Shishkof.
Jesuits,

censorship became daily more

The

The who had

and
the

been expelled from

St.

Petersburg, were banished from the

for

whole

empire, as a punishment

their proselytism
for

they really were

unnecessary in

Russia,

the

orthodox
in

guardians of the Russian universities could

art of stifling

rival

them

independent thought.

The

popetchitel of

Kazan

University was Magnitski,

ing
in

who proposed
;

to organize the teach-

accordance with the "act of the Holy Alliance."

struck out of the

He
list

dismissed eleven of the professors

of

1801-1825.]

ALEXANDER
Abbe
all

I.:

INTERNAL AFFAIRS.
Frenchman and
books

385
" a regilibrary,

honorary members
cide,"

Gregoire, a
suspicious

and excluded

from the

notably the work of Grotius on International Law.

He

for-

bade the geological theories of BufFon and the systems of

Copernicus and Newton to be taught, as contrary to the text
of Scripture.

The

professor of history was obliged to

become

inspired with the ideas of Bossuet as expressed in his " Histoire

Universellc."
;

The

science of medicine ought to be a

for-

Christian science

hence dissection was almost entirely

bidden, as incompatible with the respect due to the dead.

professor of political

The

economy was enjoined

to insist principally

on the virtues that turned material goods into spiritual pos

sessions,

" thus

uniting the lower and contingent

economy
Nikolski,

with the true and superior economy, and by this means forming the real science, in a politico-moral
the symbol of the Trinity
the
sors

sense."

professor of geometry, already demonstrated in the triangle

;

and

in

unity,

that

is

to

say,

number

one, the

divine Unity.

At Kharkof, the ProfesPetersburg the pro-

Schad and Ossipovski, and

at Saint
statistics

fessors of philosophy, history,

and

were expelled from

the universities.

Galitch,

Hermann, Arsenius, and Raupach

were summoned by the popetchitel Runitch before a university commission. The first was accused of impiety, because
he had taught the philosophy of Schelling
;

the others of Mara-

tism and of Robespierrism, for having expounded the theories

of Schloetzer, the protege of Catherine the Second, or criticised
agricultural serfage, and the extent to which the issue of paper

money had been carried. It was forbidden in future to employ professors who had studied in the West, and it was forbidden
to send thither

Russian students.
Araktcheef 's administration, of
proceeded from the gentle Alexander, was

The most
which the

salient feature of

initiative

the creation of military colonies,

a system borrowed from

Austria, which consisted of the settlement of soldiers

among

the peasants, in a certain

vol.
ii.

number

of districts.

If these sol-

25

3S6
diers
village

HISTOKY

0"F-

KUSSFA.

[Chap. XIV.

were married, their wives also were brought to the if they were not, they were married to the daughters
;

of the peasants.
first place,

village

was therefore composed,

in

the

of the military settlers, the soldiers, and, secondly,

of colonized peasants, the natives.

The

soldiers assisted

the

peasant in his field-work

for

the children of both were destined

districts

military service.

The colonized

were removed
to

from the jurisdiction of the

military administration

civil authorities,

and subjected

and government.

At the end of ten

years, according to Schnitzler, the total in these military districts

in

the

governments of Novgorod, Kharkof, Mohilef,

Ekaterinoslaf, and

Kherson amounted

to

sixty thousand

men

and

thirty

thousand horse, in the midst of a population of four

This system appeared to

hundred thousand male peasants.

It

have certain advantages, which gained over Speranski himself.

was argued

that

it

secured

regular

recruits,

lightened

the burden on the rest of the population, raised the morals

of the soldier

by keeping him with

in

his

family,
to

guaranteed

him an asylum
for the

his old

age,

restored

agriculture the

labor of which the

ple the

army had formerly deprived it, diminished government the expenses of the army and for the peocost of lodging the troops and paying requisitions, and
on the frontier of the empire.
the

finally created a military nation

And although
natives, they

the colonization was a heavy weight upon

were compensated by various advantages.

lots of land,

The

government augmented their

sonal
liberty like that of the

secured them per-

Crown

peasants, repaired their

houses, and dowered their daughters.

The country people did

at their

not understand

it

thus.

Subjected

hearths to an interference more annoying than that of

their former masters

and

their stewards, forced

;is

into a twofold

servitude as laborers and

tions
all

soldiers, their habits

and

tradi-

invaded, they cursed

circle's

Arakteheef's ingenious idea,

Revolts broke out, and Arakingratitude of the

which

offieial

extolled.

tcheef, blaming the gross ignorance and

muzhik, repressed them with implacable

severity.

1801-1825.]

ALEXANDER L: INTERNAL

AFFAIRS.

3S7

SECRET SOCIETIES: POLAND.

Other elements of trouble fermented
in

Russia.

We

are

no longer

in the

time of Catherine the Second, when the gravest

could be discussed with impunity, before an

social questions

inattentive or indifferent nation.

ander's early years

opinion.
variance.

The noble efforts of Alexnow found a decided support in public

Unfortunately the sovereign and his people were at

While a party among the nation had become enthuAlexander had grown cold about them formerly his courageous initiative was hardly appreciated at present it was the backsliding spirit of the government which irritated the country. A transformation had taken place it was not in vain that the Russian officers had seen Paris, had dwelt on French soil. Those revolutionary principles of which under Catherine the Second men had caught only a glimpse across the prism of their prejudices, they had found realized in the States of the West, and had been forced to remark the
siastic for liberal ideas,
:

coincidence of their triumph with the rapid development of a

From the time that the Russian armies returned to their country," writes Nikolai Turgenief, " liberal
new
prosperity.
ideas, as they

"

were then

called,

began

to propagate themselves

in Russia.

Independently of the regular troops, great masses

of militiamen had also seen foreign places.

These militiamen of
Europe.
Facts had

various ranks recrossed the frontier, went back to their homes,

and

related all that they

had seen

in

spoken

louder than

any human

voice.

This was the true

of

propaganda."

Pestel,

one of the

conspirators

eighteen

hundred and twenty-five, acknowledged that the restoration of the Bourbons had made an epoch in the history of his ideas and political convictions. He says "I then saw that though
:

the greater

number

of the institutions necessary to the wellin

being of a State were brought

by the Revolution, they were

continued after the re-establishment of the monarchy as conducive to the public welfare, while formerly

we

all,

myself

333

HISTORY OF RUSSIA.
the earliest, rose against this Revolution.
it

[Chap. XIV.

among

I concluded that apparently

was not so bad

as
I

From this we represented

was confirmed

to ourselves,
in

and even contained much good.

to lack

my

idea by observing that the States in which no revolution

had taken place continued

many

rights and privileges."

People read not only Montesquieu, Raynal, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, as in the time of Catherine the Second, but Bignon,
Lacretelle,
I)e Tracy,

and Benjamin Constant

and the
in the

elo-

quent voices of the French tribune found an echo

young

Russian nobility and part of the middle

the spirit of justice, and respect for the

class.

Politeness,

human

person had
lay only

made

great progress.
it

European culture no longer

on the surface, but

sciences.

penetrated deeply into hearts and con-

Many
all

declared, like

Wil helm Kiichelbecker

that people

"At
has

the thought of

the brilliant qualities with which

endowed
most of
in

the Russian people,

God

which

is

the fore-

all in

power and

in

glorious actions, that people

whose
rival

language, so sonorous, so rich

and strong,
is

is

without a

Europe, whose national character

a mixture of

good -nature,
was
stifled,

of tenderness, of lively intelligence, and a generous disposition

to

pardon offences;

-at the

thought that

all

this

and would wither and perhaps perish before having produced any fruit in the moral world, my heart nearly broke." To these noble souls it was absolute suffering to see despotism
hold
its

sway through

all

the grades of Russian society, in

all

the relations of the autocrat with the nation, of the officials with

those they governed, of the officers with their soldiers, and of

the proprietors with

the peasants.

beholding the Russian people alone

They were indignant at in Europe dishonored

by the serfage of the

that

soil,

and by domestic servitude, that

to
defile a Christian

shameful legacy of ancient Slav barbarism and the Tatar yoke,

Asiatic

ignominy which continued

people; at the sight of the Russian soldier, the conqueror of

Napoleon, the liberator of Europe, submitting to the degradation of corporal

punishment.

They did not

believe that the

1801-1825.]

ALEXANDER

L:

INTERNAL AFFAIRS.

389

inconstant will of an autocrat with even the best intentions,

that the noble plans of an Alexander
as he called himself to
for the

that "

Madame

de Stael

could

happy accident,"

makeup

want of laws and

liberal institutions.

In spite of the watchfulness of suspicious police, freemasonry,

forbidden since the time of Catherine the Second and Paul,

was reorganized and spread over Russia, the kingdom of

Poland, and the Baltic provinces.
character,
Societies of a

more warlike
for

and with a
It

definite object,

whose existence

long while remained a secret, were also established at certain

points.

was

in eighteen

hundred and eighteen that the

Society for the Public Advantage, an imitation of the Germanic

Tugenbund, was formed at Moscow, and reckoned among its members Prince Trubetskoi, Alexander and Nikita Mnravief, Matvei and Sergi Mnravief- Apostol, Nikolai Turgenief, Feodor Glinka, Mikhail Orlof, the two brothers Fon-Vizin, Iakushkin, Lunin, the princes Feodor Shakovsko'i and Obolenski, and many others. The members of this association were not
agreed as to the form of government they wished to give to
Russia,

some clinging
to

to the idea of a constitutional

others to that of a republic, which Novikof

monarchy, had been one of

others,

the

first

suggest.

This society was dissolved in eighteen

rise to

hundred and twenty-two, and gave

tutional aims,
its

two

the

Society of the North, or of Saint Petersburg, which had consti-

and the Society of the South, which recruited

associates chiefly

among
third

the officers of the garrisons of the

Ukraina or of Little Russia, where Colonel Pestel preached

republicanism.
the United Slavs,

and

less

important society, that of

dreamed

of a confederacy of the Slav races,

and

tried

garia.

in Bohemia, Serbia, and BulAbout eighteen hundred and twenty-three the Russian

to

form ramifications

societies entered into relations

with the Patriotic Society of

Poland, then preparing for an insurrection, and, in order to

secure the help of the Poles, engaged to do
to
all in their

power

favor the restoration of the

country.

The most ardent

390

HISTORY OF RUSSIA.

[Chap. XIV.

members
posts,

of the Russian associations were at that time Colo-

nel Pestel

the other of the

and Ruileef, the one a son of a former director of head of police under Catherine the
the

Second.

By

warmth

of

their

republican

convictions,

they seemed to wish to expiate the servility of their fathers:

At

the period of the meetings at Kief in eighteen hundred

and twenty-three, Pestel read a scheme of a republican constitution and of an equalizing code. As the chief obstacle
to

the realization of his projects

seemed
it

to

him

to

be the
to

existence of the

Romanof

dynasty,

was decided not

shrink from the murder of the Emperor, and the extermination of the

imperial family.
still

In the bosom of the Society of

the South, a

closer

and more secret association had been

formed, with the end of regicide in view.

by the

first

opportunity that presented

itself,

They were to profit which would be

a review in which Alexander

was

to inspect the troops of the

Ukraina, in eighteen hundred and twenty-four.

An

active

propaganda was

set

on foot among the soldiers of the garrisons,

and common
regime.

soldiers

were gained over by promising them the

liberty of the

peasants,

and the mitigation of the military

LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC MOVEMENT.

The awakening
political

of the Russian

mind did

schemes alone.

In science, in

show letters, and

not

itself in

in

arts,

the reign of Alexander was an epoch of magnificent blossom.

The
and and

intellectual, like the liberal

movement had

not the exotic

It

superficial character of the reign of Catherine.

pene-

trated

deeply into the heart of the nation, gained in power

in extent, carried

away the middle

classes,

and was propaalthough

the

gated in the most distant provinces.

The impulse given in

spirit
it

eighteen hundred and one had not stopped,

government

at

once tried to quell the

had

excited,

and Alexander, imbittered and cured of his illusions, had become mistrustful of all manifestations of private thought.

1S01-1825.]

ALEXANDER

I:

INTERNAL AFFAIRS.

391

Though

the seventy of the censorship increased, the

all

number

of secret societies was not at

literary journals

diminished, and reviews and

continued to multiply.

The Besieda was now formed, the literary club at which Kruilof read his fables and Derzhavin his odes, and which whilst the Arzamas was represented classical tendencies Zhukovski, Dashkof, Uvafounded by the romantic school, rof, Pushkin, Bludof, and Prince Viazemski. At Saint Peters-

burg the Society of the Friends of Science, Literature, and Arts

that of' the Friends of Russian

Literature at
its

Moscow, which

published an important collection of

of the

" transactions "; that

History of Russian Antiquities, and the Society of

Patriotic Literature, at
at

Kazan

that of the Friends of Science

Kharkof, and

many

others of less importance, devoted them-

selves to letters,

archaeology,

and the mathematical,

natural,

and

physical

sciences.

At Saint Petersburg appeared the

Northern, Post, the Saint Petersburg Messenger, the Northern

Mercury, the Messenger of Sion, an organ of the mystic party, the Beehire, and the Democrat, in which Kropotof declaimed
against the influence of French ideas and maimers, and in the
"

Funeral Oration of

my

Dog, Balabas," congratulated

at

this

worthy animal, among other things, on having studied

on having never read Voltaire.
still

no

university, on having never occupied himself with politics,

and

Literary activity was, as ever,

greater at

entitled the

Moscow. Karamsin was the editor of a review European Messenger, which had a brilliant career,

and published the masterpieces of the poets and authors of the time; Makarof edited the Moscow Mercury; Sergi Glinka
established
excite

the

Russian
feeling,

Messenger, in which

he

tried

to

national

now

putting the people on their

intellectual,

guard against any foreign influence, moral or

fice

now

arming them against Napoleon, "teaching the people

of the " patriotic war."

to sacri-

themselves to their country," and letting loose the furies

With the

victory of Russia over the

invader his

task

ended, and the Russian Messenger disap-

392
peared, but his
the Soil,"

HISTORY OF RUSSIA.
work was taken up by Gretch

[Chap. XIV.

in his "

who continued beyond

the frontier

Son of the war with

arms,
cries

Napoleon,

whom

he taunted as a " murderer " and an "inhis

famous tyrant," and against

he called "brigands."
time

companions

in
lie

whom
to the

"Taste beforehand,"

conqueror, "the immortality which you deserve.

this

Know

from

how

posterity will curse your

name

You
like

are seated

on your throne amidst thunder and flames,

midst of
hell,

Satan in the

encircled with death, with

devastation, fury,

The Invalide Russe was founded in eighteen hundred and thirteen, for the benefit of wounded or infirm soldiers. Even when the warlike fever calmed down, and men's minds were occupied with other things less hostile to French influence, this great literary movement still continued.
and
fire."

Almost

all

the writers of this period took their part in the

crusade against the Gallomania and the influence of Napoleon.

ZhuBatiushkof had marched in kovski was present at Borodino the campaigns of eighteen hundred and seven and eighteen
;

Some had

fought in person in the war with France.

hundred and
Petin

thirteen,
at

and had been wounded

Leipzig
;

at

Pleilsberg

was

killed

the

Princes

Viazemski and

Shakovskoi had served

militia, in

among
in

the Cossacks; Glinka in the

spite

which Karamsin,
himself.
Kruilof,

of his age, had wished

to

enroll

Their writings bear the stamp of their

besides his fables, which place

patriotic passions.

him not
for

from La Fontaine, wrote comedies, the "School Young Ladies " and the " Milliner's Shop," in which he
far

turned
French.
at

into

ridicule

the

exaggerated

taste

for

everything

Amongst

several classical tragedies, such as " (Edipus

" Polyxena,"

Athens,"

" Fingal,"

Ozerof wrote

that

of

"Dmitri Donskoi," which recalled the struggles of Russia against the Tatars, and seemed to predict the approaching The tragedy of " Pozharski," contest with another invader. the hero of sixteen hundred and twelve, by Kriukovski, conIn eighteen hundred and tains allusions of the same sort.

1801-1825.]

ALEXANDER

I.:

INTERNAL AFFAIRS.

393

Zhukovski sang the exploits of the Russians against Napoleon, in the " Song of the Bard on the Graves
six

the poet

of the Victorious Slavs,"

in the "

and

in eighteen

hundred and twelve

Rostopthe grand

Bard in the

Camp

of the Russian Warriors."

tchin, the
crisis to

enemy of the French, did not even await empty the vials of his wrath upon them.

In general the literature of the time of Alexander marks

the transition from the imitation of the ancients, or of classic

French writers,
masterpieces.

to the imitation of the

German

or English

Arzamas clubs formed, as it were, the headquarters of the two rival armies, which fought in Russia the same battle as the French romantic and classic schools at Paris. Schiller, Goethe, Burger, Byron, and
the

The Besieda and

Shakspere were as fashionable as in France, because they were

and because they created a kind of literary scandal. If Ozerof, Batiushkof, and Derzhavin kept up the traditions of the old school, Zhukovski translated Schiller's " Joan of Arc " and Byron's " Prisoner of Chillon "; Pushkin contributed
strange,
"

Ruslan and Liudmila," the " Prisoner of the Caucasus," the

and the Tmiganid, or the " Gypsies," and began his romance in verse of " Evgeni Oniegin " and the drama of "Boris Godunof" published in eighteen hundred and twenty-nine. As in France the romantic movement had been accompanied by a brilliant renaissance of historical studies, so in Russia the dramatists and novelists were inspired with a taste for national subjects by Karamsin's " History of Russia," a work uncritical in its methods, and indiscriminating

" Fountain of Bakhtchi-Serai',"

in its appreciation of historical events, but

remarkable
well as the

for the

brilliance

and eloquence of
Schlcetzer

its

style, as

charm

of

its

narrative.

had

just edited Nestor, the old

Kievan annalist, the father of Russian history.

Science
reign.

enjoyed a certain amount of protection in this

In eighteen hundred and three the Captains Krusen-

stern

and Lisianski, accompanied by Tilesius of Leipzig and

394

HISTORY OF RUSSIA.

[Chap. XIV.

Horner of Hamburg, accomplished the first Russian voyage in the Nadezhda and the Neva, and opened In eighrelations with the United States and with Japan. teen hundred and fifteen Captain Kotzebue explored the
round the world,
Southern Ocean, and afterwards the icy ocean to the north, and sought by Behring's Straits a communication with the
Atlantic, that
is,

the Northwest passage

others surveyed the

coasts of Siberia,

and

it

was ascertained that Asia was not

joined to America, as the Englishman Burney had asserted.

In eighteen hundred and fourteen the imperial library of

Saint Petersburg was solemnly thrown open to the public.
It

then contained two hundred and forty-two thousand volten thousand manuscripts.
victories of Suvorof,

umes and

formed by the

The nucleus had been who had sent to Russia

the library of the kings of Poland.

In spite of the expenses of the war, the Russian cities received embellishments.
streets

At Saint Petersburg the better-paved

built the palace of the Bourse,

and the granite quays gave evidence of the care of the

government.
ser the

Thomont

Ros-

new Mikhail

Palace,

and Montferrand began the vast

Isaac.

and splendid cathedral of Saint

served as a model for

Saint Peter's at

Rome
after-

Our Lady

of Kazan, before which the

bronze statues of Barclay de Tolly and Kutuzof were

wards erected. In eighteen hundred and one a statue was Poltava had its monument in honor of erected to Suvorof.
the victory of Peter the

Great

Kief that of Vladimir the

Baptist

Moscow

those of Minin

and Pozharski, erected

in

eighteen hundred and

eighteen

but the plan of raising on

the Hill of Sparrows at

to the Saviour, in

the inexperience

Moscow a colossal church dedicated memory of the deliverance, failed through The plan was carried out, of the architect.

though
ural
craft,

in

another place, during the present reign.

Alexander, stifling the benevolent impulses which were natto

him, and listening only to the voice of foreign

resisted

stateto

had

the wishes

of his

people,

and refused

:aii

1801-1825.]

ALEXANDER

I.:

INTERNAL AFFAIRS.
Greeks.

395

come

to the assistance of the persecuted

sians therefore considered the misfortunes

last years of his life

The Ruswhich clouded the

for this

as the

punishment from Heaven

culpable indifference toward their co-religionists of the East.

The most
flood

striking of these misfortunes

was the

frightful

happened at Saint Petersburg in November, The Neva is a sort. of eighteen hundred and twenty-five.
which
continuation of Lake Ladoga.
Saint Petersburg
is,

in large
dif-

measure, situated upon low, marshy islands, formed by the

ferent branches of the river

and by the

artificial canals

were' constructed for the purpose of drainage or

tion.

which communicais

The mouth

of the

Neva

faces the west,

and

exposed
In

to the storms

which often rage over the Gulf of Finland.

such times the waters of the gulf make a sort of tide in the

Neva, and are forced back between the low banks which confine

them.

Solid granite quays line these water-courses, and,

the catastrophes which threaten.

as a general thing, prevent

The

story

is

told that Peter the Great

was informed by a Finlaid the founda-

nish peasant of the danger of floods

tions of his

when he

new

city

but he disregarded the warning, and

cut

down

the girdled tree which

marked the height

to

which
Since

the river rose two years before Sophia became regent.

that time five or six such inundations had been recorded, but

none so

terrible as that

which occurred the year before Alexviolently from the northwest,

ander's death.

The wind blew

and the Neva rose four meters above its ordinary level. Nearly the whole of Saint Petersburg was overwhelmed.

The number

of lives lost was reckoned at

dred, and millions of dollars'

more than five hunworth of property was destroyed.

from a long journey to

The Emperor, who had

habitants,

just returned

the Kirghiz Steppes, assisted in rescuing the unfortunate in-

whose wooden houses were carried away by the

which was aggravated by the

waves, and he contributed munificently to the subscriptions

started to relieve the distress,

sudden approach of winter.

Alexander's

moody melancholy

396
was increased by
liini
;

HISTORY OF RUSSIA.
this calamity
;

[Chap. XIV.

his deafness

was growing upon

erysipelas, causing

symptoms

of insanity, attacked
family.

him

he became suspicious of his

own immediate

The people
societies,

of

Europe cordially detested the Holy Alliance,

to the notions of popular liberty
spirits
;

which was opposed

everywhere

secret

supported by the young

in process of

of

all

nations, were

formation

the universities were hot-

beds of radicalism, and the students were anxious to strike

at the

tyranny of kings.

Poland was thoroughly turbulent,

In spite of the arrest

and caused Alexander constant anxiety.

of Lukasinski and other
societies, in eighteen
still

members

of the Polish revolutionary

hundred and twenty-three, the movement

continued with ceaseless activity.

in

The peasants
localities,

in the

neighborhood of Novgorod, and

to insurrection,

other

feeling

that their burdens were too heavy to be borne,

were inclined
to

and severe measures of repression had

were unsuccessful
of the
;

be

taken.
diers

The

military colonies

both
lot.

sol-

and

serfs

complained

bitterly* of their

unhappy

Through the communications

involve his assassination.

young

officer, Slier-

wood, Alexander knew something of the plot which was

to

He

gave up the plan which he had

it

conceived of abdicating the throne, in order that

might not
bitterness.

be said that fear of losing his

life

influenced him.
to his

still

more

cruel grief

was added
at the

cup of

Alexander had been married

age of sixteen to Louisa

Maria Augusta, of Baden, who, upon her baptism into the Orthodox Greek Church, took the name Elisaveta Alexeiovna.

But

in the early years of their

married

life

there was a lack of

sympathy between them. Their two daughters died young, and Alexander formed an attachment with the Countess Naruishkin, by whom he had three illegitimate children, only
one of

whom
to

survived.

This daughter, Sophia

a

Naruishkin,
the

was soon
Alexander

be married to

young Russian

wedding
died.
for his

preparations

were partly

made,

when she suddenly

was a chastisement

felt

that this affliction

it

a
iOIC id<?

HEP

iisiiii

1801-1825.]

ALEXANDER
and from
last

I.:

INTERNAL AFFAIRS.

397

faithlessness,

this

time he began to recognize the

true worth of Elisabeth.

Daring the
journeys to

years of his

life

the

Emperor made extensive

empire.

visit

the distant parts of his

As
to

the

health of the Empress was delicate, her physicians ordered her

to

have a change of climate.

if

She refused
soil.

to

go

Baden,
fitting

asserting that
for a

she was destined not to

live, it

was

Russian empress to die on Russian

therefore,

Alexander de-

cided,

that

she should try the milder climate of

Southern Russia, and, having settled upon the port of Taganrog as preferable to the Crimea, he announced his determina-

accompany her thither. At the moment of his departure he seems to have been shaken by gloomy presentiments in everything connected with his journey he saw prognostications of his approaching
tion to
;

death.

He

left

Saint Petersburg on the thirteenth of Septem-

hundred and twenty-five, and ordered a requiem mass to be said at the monastery of Alexander* Nevski, where his two infant daughters and many members of the imperial
ber, eighteen

family lay buried.

left in his

In broad daylight burning tapers were

room.

After a journey of nearly two weeks Alexander reached

Taganrog.
press in

He

spent the week before the arrival of the

for her comfort,

Emuntil

making arrangement
in

and not

her health showed signs of improvement did he venture to

make
pire.

various excursions

the

southern

part of the

em-

He

then visited

the

shores of the

Sea of Azof, as-

cended the
capital of

Don for a considerable distance, and visited the the Don Cossacks. It was his intention to defer
Crimea
until the following spring
;

his expedition to the

as the fine

but

weather continued he accepted the invitation of

Prince Mikhail Vorontsof, governor-general of

and, in November,
the
left

New

Russia,

German
at

colonists

Taganrog for the Crimea. He visited and Simferopol on his way, and also
romantic

stopped

Vorontsof's

and

beautiful

palace

at

398
Alupka.
the
fleet,

HISTORY OF RUSSIA.

[Chap. XIV.

Finally he reached Sevastopol, where he reviewed

and inspected the

fortifications

and

arsenals.

In this

journey he overexerted himself, and neglected the precautions

which

his physician advised

him

to take.

When

he reached

Taganrog again, the

fever of the

Crimea was fixed upon him.

it

On
the

the anniversary of the great flood at Saint Petersburg

to increase
in

began
stantial

violence.

It

was impossible

to

keep

Emperor from receiving from General De Witt circumaccounts as to the conspiracy of the South and the traitorous conduct of Colonel Pestel. "Ah! the monsters,

the ungrateful monsters

intended nothing but their

Cruel recollections

happiness," he repeated over and over.

of his father's assassination,
to the throne,

and the way by which he came may have mingled with his melancholy. He
lost

thought sadly of the terrible embarrassments which he was

about to bequeath to his successor; he thought of his
Poland, as well as in Russia, had ended in reaction
of his broken purposes and
illusions; of his liberal sympathies of former days, which in
;

he thought
they will

changed

life.

In the Crimea he

was heard
but
I

to

repeat,

"

They may say

shall

of

me what

have lived

and
is

die republican."

But what a

strange Republic

the people under the

the system preserved in the name of " Araktcheevtchina "

memory
!

of

On
five,

the

the

first of December, eighteen hundred and twentyEmperor expired in the arms of the Empress Elisa-

beth.

In the judgment of his contemporaries Alexander possessed

many amiable
his

qualities.
;

"

He was

courteous and affable in

;

deportment

in his

temper mild and placable

and

in his

His education had raised his mind above the baneful prejudices which haunt the courts of
habits active

and temperate.

absolute sovereigns, and gave to

fare of the

humblest of
all

his subjects."

him sympathies in the wel" As a private citizen,

;

Alexander united

the qualities necessary to win love

as

emperor, the events which occupied his cares arc

known

to all

!*!:;?:'!

ii

1801-1825.]

ALEXANDER
The
history

I.

FOREIGN AFFAIRS.
Europe
is

399
in his

the
life.

world.

of

epitomized

For a dozen years he ruled the destinies of the contiParty spirit

nent.

may

dispute the services which he has

rendered, but the Russian people will not hesitate to place

him

in the list of its

greatest sovereigns.

In this empire,

already so vast, he incorporated, by victory or by treaty, the

grand duchy of Finland, Bessarabia, the country of Persia as

far as the

Araxes and the Kur, the province of Bielostok, and

kingdom of Poland. He did more. By means of wiselyendowed institutions he has introduced the elements of civilithe
zation

into his

realm.

abolition

of serfdom.
;

He He

has has

prepared for the general

secured the

of his people
glory."

he has increased their

see

good fortune power and military

We

shall

now

how Russia

celebrated the obsequies of

Alexander the Magnanimous.

INDEX.
alliance with England, 277 visits tomb of Frederick, 278 decides to continue war, 285 ; quarrels with Novosiltsof, 296 discontent runs high against, 300 ; disturbed by action of Napoleon, 320 ; prohibits French goods, 321 debate' over his policy, 326 ; retires to his capital, 329 ; seeks alliance against Napoleon,
; ; ; ;

Aziz, Sultan, becomes unpopular, iii. 337 forcibly dethroned, 338 dies by unknown violence, 338. Abdul Hamid succeeds to throne of Turkey, iii. 339. Abu, treaty of, cedes South Finland to Russia, ii. 159. Academy, Russian, undertakes dictionary, ii. 216 incorporates with Academy of
; ; ;

Abdul

Sciences, 216.

Achmet
236.

III. seeks to retake Azof,

ii.

107.

Address from
Adolph,

Poles to Alexander

II. , iii.

Friedrich, made Prince of Sweden, ii. 159. Adrian, patriarch, death of, ii. 92. Adiuaxople entered by Russians, iii. 41 abandoned by Turks, 377. Agriculture followed by early tribes, i.
58.

of, against Napoleon, proclamation of, at Freiburg, 354 confers with Deputies of Paris, 359 takes Poland and cedes Saxony, 361 ; modifies his Polish plan, 361 relations of, to restored France, 364 policy of, as to Poland, 366 regards Greek cause with indifference, 373 early promise of his reign, 374 becomes harsh in latter years, 384 takes Empress to Taganrog, 397 dies at Taganrog, 398 character
;

345 349

firm policy

Aix la Ciiapelle, Congress of, ii. 370. Akkerman, treaty of, made with Turkey,
iii.

38.

Aksakof complains
iii.

of

Berlin
of,

Congress,

services of, 399. II., early life and education of, iii. 174 ; succeeds to the throne, 175 manifesto of, to Russian people, 176; resolves of, as to Crimean War, 177; manifesto after Sevastopol, 201 ; same, after close of war, 207 ; initiates valua;

and

3S0.
battle

ble reforms, 209

speech
;

of,

to Deputies

Aladja-Dagh,
sians,
iii.

won by Rus-

372. sold to United States, iii. 307 ; transferred formally, 308. Albert, Bishop of Livonia, builds Riga, i. 144: Aleko Pasha wins popularity in Rumelia, iii. 381. Alexander Nevski, Prince of Novgorod, i. 159 wins battle of Neva, 160 submits to Batui, 162 dies near Vladimir. 164. of Tver flies from Pskof, i. 192 pardoned by Uzbek, 192 finally executed, 193. of Lithuania marries Helena, i. 228. I. comes to the throne, ii. 271 reconciles George III. of England, 272 seeks peace with France, 272 makes

Alaska

Moscow, 209 coronation of, 210 ; moves to abolish serfage, 221 offers amnesty to Poles, 241 amity of, with. William I., 314 speech of, to the Cosdenounced by Revolutionsacks, 320 killed by explosive bombs, ists, 383 affection of peasantry for, 385 384
at
;

splendid funeral of, 386. III. succeeds to throne, iii. 387. Alexandra, Princess, executed, i. 265. Alexis makes humane war on Poland, i. 381 treats with Poland against .Sweden, 382 confines English to Arkhangel, 399. Mikhailoviteh, character of, i. 370. Prime, marries Charlotte of Brunsgives Peter great trouble, wick, ii. 120 120 hides in Germany and Italy, 121 ; brought home and renounces crown, 121; proved a traitor and put to death, 122.
; ; ,
;

390
Alfred of England
Alliance,
,

INDEX.
served by Other,
ii.
i. 40. 290. 298.

efforts to strengthen,
of,
ii.

Araktchef.f made Minister of War, ii. 297 made Prime Minister, 382 op; ;

French, prospects
iii.

" of Four Powers " quells the Khedive,

76.
iii.

Aual, Sea
45.

posed by peasantry, 386. of, navigation begun upon,

of,

iii.

"of Three Emperors" formed,

319.

An#is, battle

ARDAHAN,
iii.

fortress,

victory doubtful, ii. 358. taken by Russians,

Allied Army lands at Eupatoria, iii. 154. Allies, movements of, in Southern Eu256 capture Dutch fleet in the conditions of, offered to Texel, 261 Napoleon, 348 three great armies of, in decide to march on the field, 349 financial preparations of, iii. Paris, 358 despatch troops to Turkey, 145 143 move on the Chersonesus, 162 intrench before Sevastopol, 168 gain by naval ask for truce at Sevastoattacks, 184 sickness in armies of, 188 pol, 188
rope,
ii.
; ;

370.
effort to

Akkhangel,
ii.

suppress trade

at,

95.

"Armed
272.

Neutrality," proclaimed against England, ii. 222 Act of, revived by Paul I., 263 given up by Alexander 1.,
; ;

Armies
ii.

collected 321.

by France and Russia,

constitution
of, of,

Army,
i.

Russian, general
;

288
,

equipments and divisions

289.

movements
198.

of,

in pursuit of Russians,
of,

Alma, Heights
iii.
;

fortified

by Russians,
in,
iii.

154 forced by Allies, 155. -, Ravine of, desperate fight

-,

156.
battle
of, its

effect in

Russia,
ii.
i.

iii.

Heavy, of 325. of Russia, reinforced continuallv, ii. 335. Arnaud, St., letter to French Minister, iii. 151 ; criticises Russian tactics, 156. Artisans, foreign, invited to Russia, i.
ii.

Alexander and Russia,

157.

356.
78.

Almanac, change made in, in 1700, Alphabet, Slavonic, first invented,

abandoned,
,

Artists, Italian, at Court of Moscow,

232.

i.

69

ii.

100.

Russian, contrived to admit print100.

ing,

ii.

Ambassadors, how received and

tained,
i.

enter-

291.

Amiens, Peace of, rupture of, ii. 275. AMOROSI, Bishop, killed by mob, ii. 198.

Arts, rise of, in Russia, i. 310; useful, promoted by Peter, ii. '.'7. Asia, Central, dubious place of Russia in, Russian boundaries in, 287 iii. 286 details of geography of, 291 - 293. Asiatic tribes, how regarded by Russia,
;

iii.

283.
first

AMUB

River, Russian acquisitions on,

iii.

Askold,
i.

305.

69

and

Christian Prince of Russia, Dir, besiege Byzantium, i.

in

Amusements,
297
;

prohibited in old Russia,

i.

66.

instituted by Peter, ii. 84. Anastasia, Tsaritsa, dies, perhaps

Assemblies, International, held

Rusi.

by

sia, iii.

280.
of,

poison,

i.

260.
of, iii.

Assumption, Church
313;
307.

in the

Kreml,

ANDRASSY, Count, declarations

note
fit',

for pacification, 329.

i.

Astrakhan subdued by
Augustus
ii.
;

Andrei reigns in Suzdal, Anna Ivanuvna, Council

mons High

159.
treats with,

135; accepts proposal of Council, 136 enters Moscow as capital, 136; sum(

iouncil, 137.
;

I., character and person of, ii. 138 oppressive style of her government, 138 court costume and etiquette of, It 11 habits and method of government, 141 becomes unpopular, 152. Leopoldovna becomes Regent, ii. 154 weakness and incapacity of, 154 condemned, with her party, 156. Paulovna, marriage with Napoleon stopped, ii. 318. Antiquities, Russian writers upon, iii.
; ;

Ivan IV., i. 255. submits to Charles reconciled with Peter, 106. XII., ii. 64 Austria, policy of, suspected by Russia, soldiers of, charged with treachii. 262 attempts negotiations with ery, 283; Russia, iii. 116; persists in sicking
of Poland,
;
;

pacification,

124

real
;

interest

of,

in

Turkish War, 131

the
sia,

and Prussia support

supplanted by Rus-

Alliance,

148

309;

and

Hungary disturbed by
in

Russian action, 313.

AUTHORS, Western, popular

393.

Russia,

ii.

Azof, 355

270.

Ai'Kaxin invades Kastern Prussia,

ii.

164.

i. to Russia by Pedestroyed by Cossacks, 355 secter decides to march upon, ii. 28 capitulates ond expedition against, 30 to Russians, 30.

offered

Cossacks,
;

INDEX.
B.

391

Black
Holy
Alliance,

Bader, Franz,
ii.

originates

368.
retreat of

Sea, Russians not to cruise in, iii. 135 entered by Allied Fleet, 136 made neunavigation of, debated, 178 tral ground, 205 neutrality of, set
;
; ;

;'

Bagration, Gen., covers

zof,
ii.

Kutu-

aside, 319.

280

overrules Barclay de Tolof Allies at,

iii.

"Black Tomb" opened by

i.

Samokvasof,
ii.

ley, 329.

62.

Balaklava, intrenchments
iii.

163
;

battle

of,

165.

Balkans, crossed by Russian army,

Blucher, steadily opposes Napoleon, 356 makes trouble in Paris, 363. Bogdanovitch, as to policy of Russia,
;

ii.

354 final evacuation of, 381. Baltic, Peter seeks to secure passage of, provinces of, saved from insurii. 51
;

352.

rection,

Banks,
ii.

iii. 246. agricultural,

Bogoliubski, besieges Kief, i. Ill founds Tsars of Moscow, .113 movements of, after fall of Kief, 114 attacks Novgo; ;

founded in Russia,
of,

167.

rod, 114 efforts of, for 116 slain by boyars, lis.

;

new

capital,

Bar, Confederation
ii.

violent spirit

of,

Bolotnikof, marches on Moscow,

retires to Tula, 333.

i.

332

18!).

Basmanof,
ris,
i.

his treason to the sons of Bo325. Bati/i, Tatar Chief, makes second invasion, i. 153. Bati'.m, expedition of Russians against, iii. 369.

Bomarsund

Bonaparte, wins

Belgrade, Peace

of,

ends Turco-Russian

War, ii. 14S. Bell, famous "Tsar-kolokol," at Moscow,

i.

taken by Allies, iii. 151. at Marengo, ii. 262 remakes turns all Russian prisoners, 262 questions the overtures to Paul I., 263 India scheme, 267 angry at murder of displeased by Russian Paul I., 270 threatens England, 277. policy, 272 "Book of Instructions" of Catherine II.,
;
; ; ;

ii.

205.

310.
of,

Belles- Lettres, advance

ii.

in Russia,
ii.

Boris and Gleb, Russian demigods, i. 160. Boris Godunof, aspires to throne, i. 312
; ;

392.
in conspiracy,
in
I.

Benningsen, prominent
269; attacks Paul

makes advance at Osterode, 287 campaign of 1807, 291. Berezina, French force passage
343.

chamber, 269; opens

;

beremoves all other regents, 312 comes virtual Tsar, 313 retires to monobtains the throne, 319 astery, 318
;

encourages learning, 321 child of, put to death, 326.

wife

and
ii.

at,

ii.

Borodino,
;

battle-field

of,

described,
;

Berlin, entered and pillaged by Russians, ii. 166 Congress of, meets to discuss
;

332 details of battle of, 333 fruitless carnage at, 334. Bosquet, Gen., displaced from command,
iii.

treaty,

iii.

378. of Sweden,
ii.

186.

Bernadutte chosen King

308.

Bourdon, Mad.,
iii.

describes

Shah Indeh,

292.
ii.

Bestuzhef, Alexander, revolutionary

of, iii. 16.

acts

Bribes and corruption denounced by Catherine,

207.

Bestuzhef-Riumin,
;

opinion on Greek Church, i. 90 as to writings of Novgorod, 13S succeeds against Lestocq, ii. 161 made Vice-Chancellor, 159 disgraced and removed, 164 concerned
;
;

Brides, capture of, at marriage, i. 56. Bridges, splendid, in Russia, iii. 276.

Brigade, Light, at Balaklava, iii. 165. "Brigand of Tushino " approaches Moscow,
i.

334.
ii.

in insurrection,

iii.

19.
for
ii.
ii.

Bkzborodko rewarded
224.

services,

ii.

Prune. Gen., reduces Zyp, ii. 261. Buffoonery, Anna I. encourages,

142.

Bibikof defeats Pugatrbef, Bible Societies established,

Bielinski, eminent

200. 3S3.
iii.

critical writer,

27.

Buildings, Russian, mostly wood, i. 23. Bukarest, Congress of, ii. 312. Bulgaria, ravaged by Bashi-Bazouks, iii. 333 welcomes tin- Russians, 354.
;

Billault,
Poland,

French
iii.

Minister,

speaks for
;

Burnet, Bishop,
39.

his opinion of Peter,

ii.

244.
ii.

Biren,

nominated Regent,

posed and exiled,

BiRGER,
i.

ii. 152 de153. of Sweden, defeated on the Ijora,

Burroughs, Stephen, voyage

Sea,
i.

to

North
ii.

274.
first

"Busy Bee,"
170.

Russian Review,

160. Russia,

Bismarck gains advantage from

iii.

Buturlin, sent

311.

Byzantium

to Cossacks, i. 380. preserved by miracle, i. 66.

392

INDEX.
by Vladimir, i. 78 ; respected by Tatars, 172 in Turkey, Russia claims to protect, iii. revolt against Turkey, 325 last 110 encouraged appeal of, to Consuls, 326 insurgent, by financial pressure, 328 difficulty of appeasing, 330. CHURCH, peculiar form of, in Novgorod, slow increase of power of, 173 i. 137
Christians,
slain
of,

institutions

"Cadets, Corps
nich,
ii.
ii.

of,"

founded by MiinPeter,

144.

Canals, important, projected by

96.

Can Robert,
iii.

Marshal, relieved in Crimea,

183.
ii.

Capefique,
tion,

his story of Peter's assassina180.

of,

Cardigan, Earl
166.

famous charge
of,

of,

iii.

Carlsbad, Congress
ii.

excitement about,
of

370.

Catherine,
story of, ii. Peter, 108
;

" Maid

Marienburg,"

59-123; acknowledged by
;

revenues and management of, 287 of Vasili the Blessed, curious style of, 309 ; reorganized by Peter, ii. 92. Civil state, idea of, from Greece, i. 94. liberty, narrowness of, under Vasili, i. 246 advanced under Ivan IV., 278. Civilization, extinct, signs of, in Tur;

described by Margravine of crowned as Empress 124 124 becomes absolute I., continues plans of Pesovereign, 128 nominates Peter II. to sucter, 121*

kestan,
ister,

iii.

288.
Earl, becomes English Minhis note as to state of ;
to,

Baireutb, Catherine
;

Clarendon,
iii.

96

Turkey, 97.

Clement
i.

VIII., Pope, bishops submit

ceed, 129.
II., usurps the throne, ii. 179 noprocures death of Peter III., 180 her tice of her dramatic works, 216 terrified by designs on Turkey, 226 her compliFrench Revolution, 245 cated diplomacy, 246. Caucasus, doubtful war with tribes of, iii. rapid Russian occupation of, 283 42 improvements in, 286.
; ;

364.

Climate, severe in winter, i. 30. COALITION, disposition of, against France, overcome by Napoleon, 284 ii. 255 renewed by Northern Powers, 2S4. Coast line, great share of, in Western small amount of, in RusEurope, i. 17
;

sia,

18.
of,
i.

Coins, ancient, discovery

58.

"Colleges"
Peter,
ii.

Census and
162.

tribute laid

on Novgorod,

i.

of Government, created by 85 of Mines, etc., suppressed,

;

209.
;

Colonies, military, founded by AraktChancellor, discovers White Sea, i. 273 cheef, ii. 385. shipsecond voyage to White Sea, 273 Colonization of immigrants favored, ii. wrecked on return to England, 271. 210. Charles X., of Sweden, invades Poland, "Commission for the Code," influence of, i. 382.
;

X., of France, Nicholas disturbed

ii.

206.

by

flight of,

iii.

46.

Communists publish
comes
to Little

principles at

Kra-

XII.
Russia, ii. land, 52
;

of Sweden,

kov,
ii.

iii.

78.

48 ; makes resumption of congratulated by European operations of, in Poland, Powers, 56 enters Russia to subdue Augustus, 60 62; character of, by Guerrier and oth;

Confederates,
191.

Polish, capture the King,

Conference,
'I'm

Berlin,
'''''.

attempts help

for

key.

iii.

CONFRATERNITIES formed against

i.

Jesuits,
of,

ers,
;

69 winter sufferings of his army, 71 70 routed and broken up at Poltava, 73. Cu ati i.i.i>n-suk-S line, congress opened
;

makes rapid march into Russia, approaches Moscow from Berezina,

i

361.
Polish,

Conscription,
iii.

serious
as to

effect

L'lo.

Constantine,
names,
i.
i.

Emperor,

Russian
II.,

60.

at,

ii.

356.

Constantinople, taken by Mahomef

215
;

"Chief
olas,

Citizens," class founded by Xieli23.

ii.

blockaded by England,

ii.

312

iii.

China,
133
iii.
:

treaty with, by [aguzhinski, relations with, under Nicholas

:

1.,

position of Russia towards, 304 ; Russia finally settles with, 306. Cholera, peasants revolt on account of,
I.!

results of conference at, iii. 344. Constitution, liberal, attempl for, clucked, refused to the nobles, iii. 229. ii. 137 Consuls, French and German, killed by
:

Turks,

iii.

332.

iii. 45 ravages Polish and Russian armies, 67 breaks out in French arrny, 149.
;
;

Cossacks, intractable character of, i. 367; defeated a1 Berestitchko, 379 again dedefinitely anfeated at Ivaneto, 380 difficulty of nexed to Russia, 381
;
;

; ;

INDEX.
revolt at Hadiatch, union with, 386 of Don, revolt against Russia, 387 last end of their power, 202 ii. 45 full into march against India, 264 march of, stopped structions to, 265 by death of Paul I., 266.
; ; ; ; ; ;

393
Dr., inoculates Catherine II.,
of,
i.

Dimsdale,
ii.

212.

Diplomacy, methods and manner

290.

Dmitri Ivanovitch claims Moscow,

197.

i.

Costumes, curious, of native women,

;

i.

ridiculous, at Court of Anna 1., ii. 41 143. Council of Regents appointed for Feodor, i. 311. Courts, form of improved, iii. 230.

Donskoi, military movements of, i. 198 defeats Tatars on the Voja, 200 threatened by Mamai, 201. brother of Feodor, killed by
;

Crimea, Khan of, marches on Moscow, i. and Livonia, war against both, 252
;

Uglitch, i. 317. the False, his appearance, i. 332. the second, assassinated,
,

i.

339.

; second expedition against, fails, Turks finally driven from, 193 21 geography of, iii. disturbances in, 223 war of, great loss of life in, 206. 152

258

the
!74.

fourth,

executed,

i.

ii.

Pojavski
i.

commands popular army,

342.
at-

Criminals,
II.,
iii.

State,

pardoned by Alexander

212.

Dnieper River, influence of, i. 26. Dobrudsha Wilderness, Russians

tacked
i.

Cyprus, given to England by Berlin Congress,

iii.

in, iii. 148.

380. D.

Dall,
iii.

Wm.
308.
;

H., statements as to Alaska,

to

to Charles I. of England, brought before Parliament, 398. Dolgoruki, becomes powerful, ii. 131 revolt, but is detected, 150 incites sent to Napoleon, 280.

Dokturof, sent
397
;

Domestic establishments include

i.

slavery,

throne of Galitch, i. 124 efforts of, for freedom of Galitch, 126; first Prince of Moscow, 1S7. Dantzig, taken by the Russians, ii. 146. Danube, crossed by Russians, iii. 146350 operations of Russians upon, 352. Days, great variation in length of, i. 22> Death, penalty of, abolished by Eliza;

Daniel, succeeds

295.

Doroshenko
397.

defeated in Little Russia,

i.

Dorostol, battle of, i. 73. Dramatists and satirists, various Russian,

iii.

Dresden,
350.

261. battle

of,

won by French,
of,

i.

beth,

ii.

168.
for collection of,
i.

Dress, harsh notions

297.

in

Old Russia,
state
I., ii.

i.

Debts, rigorous laws

286.

Dkevoninski,
Russia,
i.

as

to

religious

of

Deities, worshipped by certain tribes, i. 42 greater and lesser, of early authors,

;

366.
142. influence,

i.

52.

Drinking, suppressed by Anna Drujinniki, or Guards, their

i.

De la Gardie, invades Russia with Swedes,

drives Brigand from Tushino, 271 335 takes Baltic ports, 341. Demidof, family founded by menus of Pei.
; ;

87.

Duunkenness,
i.

universal in Old Russia,

of,

298. battle

Dubienka,
ii.

under Kosciuzko,
blockades Constan-

ter, ii. 96.

236.
ii.

"

Demon, The,"
iii.

great

poem by Lermontof,
ii.

Duckworth, Admiral,
tinople,

30.

312.

D'Enghien,
2Z6.

Due, seized and executed,

Duel,

in Russia, i. 286. Diiroc, his plan for restoring Poland, ii.

judicial,

employed

Denmark,
267
;

fleet of, seized by English, ii. forced to give up Schleswig-Holstein, iii. 311. Derby, Lord, criticises Russian action, iii. 349. Derzhavin. greatest lyric poet in Russia, ii. 219.

319.

E.

Eckhardt,
iii.

Julius,

on female education,
;

254.

Devlet-Ghirei, Khan, invades Moscow,

i.

268.
iii.

Dibitch, Count, enters Poland with Russians,

65.
of, ii.

Edigek, the Tatar, invades Russia, i. 208 raises siege of Moscow, i. 208. Education, made compulsory by Peter, promoted by Catherine II., 213 ii. 97 restricted and regulated by Nicholas, iii, 25 public, state of, in Russia, 253
; ;

Diet

of Grodno, sad spectacle

237.

female, efforts towai'd, 254.

394
"Elect
title,

INDEX.
" Explosive Bullet Treaty," universally
signed,

of Whole Muscovite Empire," 342. Elizabeth of England, Ivan IV. corremakes treaty with sponds with, i. 266 embassy to, from Boris, Ivan IV., 276 320 ; receives Russian envoys, 320. Petrovna, intrigues against Anna
i.
;

account of, ii. 287 Russians retire from field of, 288, Eyre, Gen., bravery of, at Sevastopol, iii.
187.
F.

Eylau,

iii. 324. battle of,

II.,
;

ii.

155;
;

seizes

the

sudden death of, 156 results of her zeal of, 166

government, fanatical 166

;

Falconet, sculptor of statue of Peter

ii.

I.,

reign, 172.

215.
in all Russia,
i.

of serfs, early discussed, in Northern Russia, slightly favored by Nicholas, iii. 376 begun in 23 ; preparation for, 218 gradual progress of, Lithuania, 222 224 final conditions of, 225 influential promoters of, 228. Emigrants, Greek, to Moscow, i. 231. Emigration, as affecting local names, i. consequences of, 49. 47 Ems, Conference held at, iii. 312. England, and Holland offer to mediate, seeks to open Oriental trade, i. 347 352 accepts alliance against Napoleon, curious changes in Cabinet of, ii. 278 refuses to anticipate fall of Turiii. 86 further conference as to Turkey, 91 learns action of Russia 105 key, 95 acts with France on Eastern Question,
ii.

Emancipation
206
;
;

Famine, great
117.

321.
i.

begun

Feast, commemorative, at Vladimir,

Feodor, Ivanovitch, succeeds

i.
;

to throne,

dies, ending his dynasty, 317. 311 Alexiovitch, succeeds to crown, i. 399 state of royal family at his death,
;

ii.

13.

Fermor makes
sia,
ii.

second invasion of Prusat,

ii.

164. 334.

Fily, Russians hold council

Finance, condition of public, iii. 233. Fish, heavy, found in Volga, i. 27. Forbes, Archibald, censures Russian
tion,
iii.

ac-

Forced
83.

358. marriage, abolished

defined,
i.

by
28.

Peter,

ii.

Forest, Zone of, Forster, George, as to

238.

fall

of Poland,

ii.

ministers of, reach Turkey, 108 awakens to designs of Russia, 113 and

106

Four
121.

Powers, indignant at Turkey,

iii.

deFrance will occupy Black Sea, 135 disturbed clares wnr upon China, 304 great feeling in, by Gortchakof, 319 objects to Berlin I'm Bulgaria, 334 strong action of, Conference, 336; fleet of, passes against Turkey, 343
;

France, negotiates
352
;

for Oriental trade,

i.

amity of, with Peter, ii. 117; assists Russia in Sweden, &c, 149; joins Russia against Germany, 158; civilization
of,
of,

carried

to

Russia,

171

lan;

Dardanelles, 378. English form exploring company under Cabot, i. 272. army, occupy Balaklava, iii. 163 repulsed repulsed from Redan, 187
;
;

guage

popular under Elizabeth, 172

again, 196.

institutions of, favored by Catherine, 214; relations to Italian States, 253; symexpels Turks from Greece, iii. 40 shut out of pathizes with Poland, 72 Convention of London, 75; returns to
;

Email, law
144.

of,

abolished by

Anna

I., ii.

Erasmus Handelius mediates

land,
i.

for

Po-

place in ('(invention, 77; answers circular of Nesselrode, 117. Francis Joseph, his cruelty toward Hungary,
iii.

347.
of,

84.

Erfurt, Conference
Alexander,
finally
ii.

by Napoleon and "

iii.

i''i:

LNK.FORT, Basis of," Napoleon insists

ii.

303.

on,

357.
II.,

Erzerum, Russians move toward,

:'>7-">.

374;

Frederick
Powers,
of
;

his

letter

to

Western

taken by Russians, Kn.i:\irs IV., Pope, seeks union with Greek Church, i. 214. EUPATORIA. occupied by Turks, iii. 168; Russians repulsed before, 169. Europe, eastern ami western divisions, i. 17; sovereigns ")', roused against Tatars, 157 military relations of, with attitude of, on Charles XII., ii. 63
;

i.

157.

Eastern Question, iii. 115. Evdokia, wife of Peter, sent to convent, ii. 44 full story of, 119.
;

Elizabeth jealous of, affairs, ii. 194. French actors dismissed by Peter III., ii. 17ti troops, plan of sending, to India, 266 army, painful march of, to army, sufferings of, Kustendje, iii. 14H Varna, 150; batteries silenced by at Russians, 164; capture Mamelon and White Works, 185 repulsed from Mai akof, 1*7; hurt by explosion in BranPrussia,
ii.

162

stirs

up Polish

don Redoubt,

192.

INDEX.
G.

395
Lieut., as to defence of Plevna, as to passage of Shipka, 377.
;

Greene,
iii.

367
i.

Galitch governed by boyars, i. 122. Galitsuin, fails in movement against

driven into exile, 25. 21 Gallicia, principality of, located, i. 100. Gallipolis fortified by Allies, iii. 146. Gambling encouraged by Anna I., ii. 141. Gazette, Moscow, its great influence, iii.

Gregory
land,

XIII.
271.

Pope, mediates

for

Po'

Turks,

ii.

Gkiboiedof, eminent dramatist, iii. 31. Grigorief, Prof., on Russian policy, iii.
287.

Gkokhof,
65.

battle of, Poles repulsed at,

ii.

iii.

249-272. Gedimin, establishes power of Lithuania, appeals to Pope for protection, i. 176
;

Guerillas, French attacked by,

;

340.
iii.

Gurko, Gen., gains much at Plevna, 366 moves toward Balkans, 367
;

se-

177.

Geneva, Convention
iii.

of,

Russia adheres

to,

vere service of, 383.

sia,
i.

of,

375

offensive orders

324.
history,

Gustavus Adolphus,
promotion
in,
of,
iii.

Geography, and
ii.

349

treaty of, with Russeeks alliance with Russia,

100

Russian, investigations

351.

277.

Geology,
278.

successful explorations in, " killed

iii.

197

III. makes great revolution, ii. invades Russia, 227 makes Peace
;

" George the Black

ii.

bv Milosh,
by,
i.

313.

of Verela, 228. IV. treats Alexander rudely, ii. 307 ; makes treaty with England, 307 ;
arnearly driven from Finland, 307 succeeded by rested and expelled, 308 Charles XII., 308.
; ;

Germans, invasion and domination

145.

Gerstenzweig, Gen., suicide of, iii. 238. Gilbert of Lannoy, his account of Novgorod,
i.

128.

Glinka, political editor, ii. 391. Gogol-Ivanovski, eminent writer, "Golos," daily journal, character
272
317.
;

H.
iii.

31.

of, iii.

remarks

of,

on Prussian

affairs,

Haiduki rise against Janissaries, Hanse League has monopoly in

i.

311. Russia,
ii. iii.

137.

Gontcharof,
iii.

novelist, style of his work,

Hazret
290.

Iasavi, his mosque described,

258.
at Viiii.

Gorgey, Gen., betrays Hungarians

lagos, 82.

Helena Glinski, widow

tired,
i.

of Vasili, noi.

247.

Gortchakof, ordered

to leave Turkey, iii. declines to evacuate Turkey, 127. Prince, takes command of army, holds important councils of war, 169 189 his loose policy as to defence, circular 194 conciliates Poles, 236 of, to European made Powers, 282 Chancellor of Russia, 309 circular of, his summary to the Six Powers, 318 of Eastern Situation, 345. Government, Russian, extortions of, i. 285. Governments, provincial and municipal, iii. 232. "Grand Army" of Napoleon, formed, ii. 324 broken up by desertion, 352. Greece, invaded by Iaroslaf, i. 83 independence of, recognized, iii. 41. Greek Church, benefits and difficulties of, i. 91 Emperor, ideal character of, 93 war of 1827, outline of, iii. 39. " Greek Project " for dismembering Turkey, ii. 225. Greeks, early settlement of, i. 32 and Serbians, effect of revolt of, ii. 372

Henry
103.

IV. intercedes with Sviatoslaf,

of

125

',

Anjou made King of Poland,

of France sends merchants

i.

270.
III.

to

Russia, 391.

i.

276.
fanatics oppose

Heretics and

Nikon,

i.

Herman de Balk,
nia,
i.

Landmeister of Livo-

146. Herodotus, his account of Finnish tribes,

i.

44.

Herrmann,
Sovereigns,
tion,
,

writer, his
ii.

judgment

of

Four

68.

Herzen, Alexander, remarks on

iii.

insurreciii.

19.

publisher in

London,

217

champion

High Anna
iii.

of Nihilists, iii. 263. Council, members condemned

I.,
ii.

by

138.
of,

Historians, Russian, works

268.

noticed,

Holland and Hanse Towns,

France,
ii.

united to
I.,

massacred by Turks,

ii.

373.

319. Holy Alliance, formed by Alexander ii. 369 ; hated in Europe, 396.

30G
on
'.
I

[NDEX.
of,

stirred
92.

by

IONIAN Islands
Turks,
ii.

taken

by Russians and
Siberia,
i.

u,

in. 86.

252.

Synod founded by

Peter,

ii.

Irmdk, Tunofeivitch, invades

of
-'77.

Horde,
t
i i

Great, broken
i.

down by Khan

ti

i >

1.

''".

Iron-clad
others, killed by

vessels

added

to Russian navy,

s
.

Avni and
Pasha,

Has-

iii.

323.

routed

and driven from

Kara,

iii.

'''

1-

ISIASLAF, deposed by Sviatoslaf, i. 103; puts Viati beslaf defeated by [uri, 109 mi throne, l"'defeats 1 uri on the Rut,
; 1 ;

i.

110.
ii.

Ismail assaulted and taken bv Suvarof,

I.

231.

ISTOMIN, Admiral, killed

[AGl
:

at

Sevastopol,

i", successor of
II

Olgerd,
1

i.

178
;

ea

dviga
<

oi

Hungary,
79.

17i"

marremoves
;

iii.

180.
of,

Italy, political relations

iii.

with Russia,

capita] i"
128.

iracow,

310.

Iaguzhinski laments over tomb

ii.

of Peter,

Ii

i:

i.

Dolgortiki, disputes throne of Kief, 108; finally obtains throne, 110; de,
i :

Iakob Kuan,

notice of stinate resistance of,

life of, iii. "J94

ob-

feated by Mstislaf the Bold, 120. called Second, founds JN j i

Nov-

Ian Kasimir succeeds Vladislas, i. 377. " Iarluik," hi Patent issued by Khan,
168.

gorod,
i.
i.

i.

121.

II.

of Suzdal, defeated at

Kolomna,
i.

154

slain at battle of the Sit,

155.

roubles

with the princes, i. Novgorod, 120 and

of,
;

of
of Tver,
1-'.'
:

Moscow, quarrels with Mikhail

;

Vladimir, reign in Galitch, 122; of .1 confirmed by Tatars, 159. [assy, or Jassy, Peace of, ends Turkish

War,
tice,

ii.

231.

i. 188 marries sister of Uzbek, invades country of Tver, 189 slain by Dmitri, 191. Ivan Kalita, marches against Tver, i. 191 denounces Alexander, 193.
:

i.

Arab

writer, as to Russian jus-

to funerals,
i.

53.

Ibrahim
iii.

of Egypt
first

sdnsl

Turks,

71.
-..

shot fired

at,

iii.

350.

ttle of the, wiui

by Alexander Nev-

weak government of, i. 193. or "Great," prophecy at birth of, 217; character of, by Stephen of .Moldavia, 217; marches on Novgorod, 219 holds court in Novgorod, 220; arrests Hanse merchants, 221 extends Russian power to Asia, 221 absorbs Tver and other provinces, 222;
II.,

III.,

i.

ski,

i.

161.

called Binder of Russian Land, 223

re;

[ezieubki questioned
64.
'

by insurgents,
i.

iii.

liefs

against

Akhmet

the

manages Tatar envoys, 227

prince,
f>7
;
:

subdues
of,

against Lithuania, 228

68

death

ac-

Livonian Germans.. 230

I

Tatar, 225 lays plans operates marries Sophia

;

D
the
]
.

on, 68; slain

by
ii.

88.

Imperial Council

replaces the Senate,

in,

231 compared with Louis XI. of fiance, 233 difficulty of fixing essnr, 23 l. V., or ' Terrible," asserts author'aleologus,
;

English rule
ii.

scheme

to destroy,

264.
.

int mil. encouraged by Pe'

Allies at,

iii.

i. 249 crowned with title "Tsar," 250 marries Anastasia Romanof, 250 besieges Kazan with difficulty, 252 invades Kim litsof Livonia, 257 sickness of, and mutiny against,

ity at thirteen,

of

167.
n
i.
i

259
_'t'il:
;

replies
iw,

to
;

Kurbski,

HI-, Po

by Roman,
1

124
'

denounces Livonians,

1.

reconstructs government, begins to punish mutineers, 264;

;

262

Daniel king, i. 125 lei Nevski, L61

1

75.

1
'

'' rine

II.

promotes,

ii.

for souls of his \ ictims, 266 calls council as to Poland, 267 plans of, againsl Poland, 269 Polish speech of, to envoys, -j 7o founds Strelitz, or National
;

prays

212.

"
iii.
1

eovina.
i.

to], -rates Reformed Faith, Guard, 278 mses death of his son Ivan, '27[>. Sossanin saves life of .Mikhail, L
;

barbaric, in early times,

30.

344.

INDEX.
Ivan VI. imprisoned by Catherine
ii.

397
202
;

II.,

iii.

again

besieged,

370

new

181.

movement
discoveries
54.
of,

Ivanovski,
tombs,
i.

in

Russian

of,

against, described, 372

371
;

fortifications

stormed by Rus-

sians, 373.

Kartsof, Gen.,
jan Pass, 242
;

iii.

crosses Balkans 376.

by Troof, iii.
;

Katkof, Mikhail, powerful appeal

stirs

Russia against Poland, 243

Japan, history of commercial

hi. 306.

efforts in,

Jena and Auerstadt, battles of, ii. 284. Jenkinson, English Ambassador to Russia,
i.

demands against Swedes and Germans, 246 stirs up Russian feeling, 249. Kattner, Herr, dedicates book to Ger;

man army,
Kazan, Tatar
i.
; ;

iii.

317.

274

enterprise

of,

in quest of

trade, 275.

Jesters employed among early Russians,

i.

taken by Ivan III., 226 determined against by Ivan IV., 252 walls of, undermined, 254.
capital,

298.
;

Kazi-Molla preaches
284.
;

in the Caucasus,

iii.

Jesuits, meddling habits of, i. 359 exen360 pelled by Stephan Batory, couraged by Sigismond III., 360 seek finally to subdue Russia to Rome, 360 terrible expelled from Russia, ii. 94 barbarities charged to, 188. Jews and foreigners invited to Galitch, i.
;

Khazarui, native tribe like Jews, i. 43. Khemnitzer, first Russian fabulist, ii.
218.

Khiva, unsuccessful march

44
;

against,
;

iii.

125.

Job, Archbishop, made Patriarch, i. 317 proclaims falsity of Otrepief, 324. John Zimisces expels Russians from Greece, i. 74. Jonas of Moscow censures priests, i. 142. Joseph II. of Austria, movements of, ii.
;

229.

JoiJBERT, Gen., defeated at Novi, ii. 257. Judicial proceedings, improvement in,
hi. 229.

Juries established in Russia, iii. 230. "Justice, Song of," sung by minstrels,
369.

i.

history of, 300 subdued by Kaufmann, 301. Khlopitski, action of, in Polish revolt, iii. 57 made Dictator of Poland, 58 resigns dictatorship, 62. Kii.mki.nitski, Bogdan, head of Cossacks, i. 375 takes field against Poles, 376 victor at Khersun, and "Yellow Waters,'' 376 sends memorial to Vladislaus, 377 treats with Polish envoys, 378 troubles after his death, 383. Khodjent, great city of Turkestan, iii. 289. Khovanski checks revolt in Pskof, i. 374. chief of Streltsui, put to death, ii.
to,
;

expedition

Justices of Peace, system

of, iii.

231.

19.

Khrulef,
169.

Gen.,
of,

fails

at

Eupatoria,

iii.

K.

Kief, city

Kadlubek,
i.

Rishop, as to acts of Roman,

of Esthoat,

123.
i.

" Kalevy-poeg," national poem

nia,

of, i. 26 85 principality of, located, 98; taken by princes of Smolensk, 115 taken and pillaged by Tatars, 156 becomes subject to Ged;

early importance

greatness

of,

under

Iaroslaf,

Kalka,
i.

147. battle

imin, 176.
of,

Russians defeated

Prince
102.

of,

made Head

of Empire,
of,
iii.
i.

152.

Kalmuiks
199.

return to Chinese territory,

of

ii.

Kirghiz and Kalmuiks, region

Tatars troublesome to Russia,

29 295

Kantemir
108.

Moldavia joins
life

Peter,

ii.

and Kokandians

Klapka,
of

yield to Russia, 296. Gen., continues against Austria,

fresh

Karakozof attempts
II.,
iii.

Alexander
of of

iii.

83.

250.

Kokandians,
297.
;

troubles

with,

iii.

Karamsin, writer, as to condition women, i. 56 censure of, as to sack

Kief, 111
; ;

on Tatar invasion, 156 as to Tatar influence, 169 remarks on Ivan III., 217 opposes Speranski, ii. 382 eminent as literary
of,
;

remark

issued by Herzen, iii. 217 of Herzen, great power of, 271. Koltsof, eminent poet, iii. 31.
;

"Kolokol," paper

Konigsberg surrenders
292.

to

Lestocq,

ii.

editor,

Kars,

ii. 391. city of, taken

Konisski, Bishop, petitions for helD.

ii.

by Gen. Muravief,

187.

398
Koxstantin
i.

INDEX.
defeats Russians at

Orsha,
iii.

L.

239.

Paulovitch
13.
,

renounces crown,
;

Lakes, Northern, deep valley

of,

i.

21.

flees Duke, threatened, iii. 50 from Warsaw, 53 retires from Poland,

;

Count, succeeds Gortchakof, 237 recalled from Poland, 238. Land, Black, extent and nature of, i. 28
iii.
;

Lambert,

54.
-,

Prince,

made high

admiral,

iii.

178.

Duke, made viceroy of Poland,

iii.

238.
iii.

productive, in Russia, 38. Lapuhkin, Mad., arrested and condemned, ii. 160. Law, maritime, new principles sustained, ii. 222.

Kornilop,
Allies,

Admiral, his plan against killed at Malakof, 161

;

Laws, Byzantine and

i.
;
;

Slavic,

conflict of,

164.

Kokosttn, city, burned by Olga, i. 68. Kosciuzko, becomes Hero of Poland, ii. 239 makes insurrection at Krakof,
;

239

efforts to consolidate parties,

241

Matsiovitsai, liberty by Paul I., 250.

at

defeated

243

set at
ii.

103 of Russia, as affected by Mongols, 170 improvement in structure of, 233 of civil justice, administration of, 285 provision for administering, ii. 208. Lazzaroni, terrible riot of, in Naples, ii. 254 second riot of, in Naples, 257. Learning, favor for, under Mikhail, i.
;

356.

Kotchubey, and Iskra executed,

;

48

Leibnitz advises with Peter as

ii.

to reforms,
at,
ii.

and Strogaadvises Alexander I., 271 nof dismissed, 296. Kotoshikin, Gregory, writes against boyars, i. 394. Kotzebue tries "Northwest Passage," ii. 394. Krakof, retaken by Prussians, ii. 241 insurrection at, against Austria, iii. 78 insurrection at, quelled bv Nicholas,
; ;

85.
of,

Leipsig, battle
351.

Napoleon beaten
character
i.

Lelevel,
61.

revolutionist,
to Oleg,

of,

iii.

Leo VI. submits

X.,

67.

Pope,

mediates for

Moscow
i.

and Poland, i. 240. the Deacon, as to early Russians,

62.

79.

or Kremlin, its grandeur and importance, i. 306. KrUanitch, Iuri, elevator of Russian let-

Krbml,

Lermontof, Mikhail, eminent

29.

poet,

iii.

ters,

i.

394.

KROPOTOF, editor, noticed, ii. 391. Kritdbner, Mad., her mystical counsels, her influence upon Alexander ii. 368
;

Lestocq, Court Physician, his intrigues, ii. 159 disgraced and exiled, 161. " Letter of Justice," or Laws of Novgo;

rod,

i.

135.

Lewenhaupt, Swedish
ii.

general, defeated,

I.,

383.
Dictator,
first
iii.

71.

Krukovietski made Krusenstern makes

68.

Russian voyage

LlAPlTNOF abandons insurgents, i. 333. Liberalism, advance of, in Russia,

388.

ii.

round the world, ii. 394. KiJCHELBECKER remarks on Russian people,

ii.

Liberators,
343.

monument

erected

for,

i.

388.

Kulen, Vandamme defeated at, ii. 350. Kn.iKuvo, battle of, won by Dmitri,
K
i

Liberty,
i.

civil,
:

ii.

205

ideas
20.

remarkable principles of, of, demanded by insur-

202. LISH, as to Poles

gents,

iii.

and Russians,
routed
of,

i.

37.
ii.

KiJNERSDORFF,
165.

Prussians

at,

Literature, encouraged by Iaroslaf, i. rapid growth of, under Christianity, 86

;

95
of, eloquent letter
to Peter,
ii.

i:

B vi

74.

KURBSKI, Andrei, abandons Ivan IV.,

; ;

i.

writes letter to same, 262 261 elegant and powerful writings of, 302.

peculiar, of Novgorod, 13S rise of, a ml science, greal adRussia, Moo vance of, ii. 169 great men of, under leaders of, further Catherine 1!., 218 Doticed, 22i; active advancement of, :;'.il difficulties of, under Nicholas, iii.
;
;

in

KuTUZOF,
ii.

fights his
;

279
;

takes

out of Austria, command of Russians,

way

331

reinforces himself on retreat, 321 ; retreats from Borodino, 333 retires be;

yond

heats Murat at Moscow, 335 Vinkovo, 340; his pleasant ways with the army, 342.
:

real advance of, in Russia, 33 turned in favor of reform, 216; devellor and opment of, in Russia, 257 Russian, as afagainst Nihilism, 264 fected by European ideas, 265.
:'."
;
: ; :

Lithuania, decline and absorption condition of, under Ivan 184

;

of,

i.

Iii.,

INDEX.
quarrels of Ivan with, 229 defeated at Vedrosha, 229 Alexander of, makes truce with Ivan, 230 people of, robbed by Russian law, iii. 246. Lithuanian tribes, notice of, i. 174. Lithuanians, wholesale baptism of, i.

399
audacious

227

new
of,

Mangu Khan,
France,
142.
i.

demand

of,

oi

forces

Maxxsteix

165. describes

Anna's court,

ii

179.

Livonia and Crimea, war against both, and Poland, forces defeated by i. 258
;

Russia, 267.

Livonian Knights, defeated at Dorpat, i. 163 intercept German workmen, 257 make alliance with Poland, 257 order
;

of,

broken up, 267.

revolt

Livoxians
i.

and abjure

Christianity,
of,
ii.

144.

Lo.muxosof, works and character

170.

London, Conference
bourg neutral,
132.
iii.

of,

makes Luxemiii.

312.

Lord Stratford
370

overlooks Protocol,
retires

seeks to save Novgorod, i. 218 defeated at Korostuin and the Shelona, 219. Mark, Bishop of Ephesus, defeats union with Rome, i. 214. Markof, Russian minister, unpleasant ways of, ii. 276. Marlborough visits camp of Charles XII., ii. 63. Marriage, ridiculous, of Galitsuin, ii. 143. forced, abolished by Peter, ii. 83. Marriages between Russians and Tatars, royal, how managed in Russia, i. 168 283. Massena, operations of, against Allies, ii. 25S. Mathematicians, eminent Russian, iii.
-, ;

Ma kfa,

280.

Loris-Melikof, Gen.,
iii.
;

improves

from Kars, popular feeling,

383.

Matvief, introduces European refinements, accused and deposed, 399. i. 396 Maurice, Emperor, as to ancient tribes,
;

Louis XVIII., expelled from Mitava, ii. 264 enters Louvre, and meets Alexan;

i.

59.

der, 360.

ii.

of 132.

Saxony seeks

to get Kuiiand,

Napoleon, his
iii.

rise

and prospects,
of,

Maximilian

85

visits Victoria, 179.

cow and Poland,

founded,

"Love and
ii.

Fidelity," order

Maximus
i.

123.
village,

242

Lovtoha,
iii.

captured by Russians,

Mayran,
iii.

of Austria mediates for Mosi. 239. the Greek, at Court of Moscow, banished to monastery, 243. Gen., killed before the Malakof,

363.
of,

187.

Lublin, Diet
i.

results in

Act of Union,
iii.

358.

Ludkks, Count, enters Transylvania,

82
60.
;

made Viceroy

of Poland, 238.
i.

Luitprand, remark on Russian names,

real story of his adoption by Cossacks, ii. 45 gains confidence of Peter, 46 tampers with Polish agents, denounced 46 joins the Swedes, 49 by Peter and driven into Turkey, 49. Medicine, jealousy toward such as prac; ; ;
;

Mazepra,

Lutzen and
French,
iii.
ii.

Bautzen,
347.

battles

won

by
of,

tised,

i.

299
ii.

and
;

sui-gery,

encouraged

by

Peter,

100
255.

readiness of

women

Luxembourg, France asks evacuation

312.

to study,

iii.

Mehemet
iii.

Ali

fails to

drive out Russians,

of Livonia,
i.

363.

M.

Meiniiard made Bishop

144.

Melikof, Prince, wisdom of, as to public of, at Naples, ii. press, iii. 273. army of, broken up at Ulm, 279. Magnus, Danish prince, made King of Mengh-Ghxrei of Crimea, ally of Ivan

Mack,
253

Gen., operations

Livonia,
116.

i.

268.
visited

III.,

i.

224.

Maixtexox, Mad.,

by

Peter,

ii.

Menshikof,
128
;

acquires

superior power,
I-'.

ii.

Makarof, editor, notice of, ii. 391. Makhmet-Ghirei slain by Mawai, i. 241. Malakof, tower of, built by Russians, iii.
160 great strength of works at, 192 taken by French by assault, 195. Mamelon, captured by French troops, iii. 185 re-named after Col. de Brandon,
; ;
;

his ambition and greed of authorlisity, 130 opposed by Peter II. ami abeth, 130 arrested and disgraced, 131. Prince, sent to Constantinople, his pompous entry into Turiii. 101
;

185.

insults Fuad Effendi, 103 key, 102 makes further trouble in Turkish Cabinet, 112 commands at Sevastopol, 153; resigns command, 169.
;
;

400
i

INDEX.

Moscow, princes of, subjected to Khans, M in Hants, oppressed by nobles, i. 294. 171 becomes centre of Eastern RusMERRICK, John, ambassador from James sia, 185 princes of, methods of their I., i. 'Mb. ambition, 186; lust built by luri DolMetternich gets influence over Alexani.
:

der,

iii.

371. Prince, 131.

ii.
,

as

to

Eastern Question,

Mezentsof, Gen., assassinated, iii. 382. Michael, Saint, Cathedral of, etc., i. 308. MlCHELSON, captures Pugatchef, ii. 201
invades Moldavia, 311.

Midhat Pasha
iii.

gets control in Turkey,

339.

Mikhail, charged with poisoning Kontchaka, i. 189 set in pillory by Uzbek,

;

189
199.

slain
,

by agents of

luri, 190.
i.

of Tver,

subdued by Dmitri,

Vorotinski defeats Tatars, i. 269. Romanof, chosen Tsar at fifteen, i. opens new Polish War, 354. 311 Grand Duke, heads Russian ardescribes storming of my, iii. 369
;
,

greatness ot, increases ungoruki, 187 advanced and improved der [van, 194 under Dmitii, 205; gains over Suzdal besieged byShemiaka, and Nijni, 206 with Poland, many alliances of, 212 by feuds among boyars, ravaged 239 sutlers great conflagration, 251 248 architectural glory of, 305 great liability of, to fire, 306 joins the usurpaalmost all lu rued tion of Otrepief, 326 by Poles, 34U great revolt in, against riot at, on account of Miloslavski, 372 Polish War, 3S4 Academy of, founded by Feodor, 399 riot and tumult in, ii. great triumph in, 30 ; complaints 16 scourged by the at, against Peter, 40 197 treasures of, removed, plague,
;

Kars,

;;7:'>.

Milan, Prince of Serbia, strong movements of, iii. 340. Military ait, Western, brought into
Russia,
iii.
i.

conflagration of, 339 French distressed in, 339. Miund-hwellings of ancient people, i.
;

338 338

brandy and

spirits
;

burned

in,

57.
.M'
i.

r\

\ins of Russia and other countries,

353.
killed

19.

MlLORADOVITCH
17.

by

insurgents,
ii.

Mozaffar,
299
;

Milosh
313.

successfully rebels in Serbia,

revolts against Russia, iii. defeated at Zera-Bulak, 299. MsTISLAF the Brave, bold message of, i.
116.

MlNDVOG, becomes Prince of Lithuania, i. 175; invades Russia, 175; defeats Livonian Knights, mont, 176.
175
;

Mukhtar Pasha
iii.

the Bold leaves Novgorod, i. 131. defeated by insurgents,

of,

slain

by Dov-

331.

Municipalities, privileges
ii.

regulated,
ii.

Mines, Peter arouses interest in, ii. 96. Minin and Pojarski, honors accorded to,
i.

209.

MUNNICH,
147
;

seeks

to

develop cavalry,
;

343.

Mining, Russian, results of, iii. 252. Ministry founded to replace "Colleges,"
ii.

and Lascy penetrate Crimea, 148. MURAD V'., becomes Sultan, iii. 338 deposed and retired, 339.

377.
to deliver Ivan VI.,
ii.

Murat
,

MlROVlTCH, seeks
181
ing,
;

the Tatar supports Dmitri, i. 198. Marshal, enters Kbnigsberg, ii. of Poin of,

executed
Peter,
i.

for treason, 182.

2! 12.

Mohila,

promotes religious learnnature and

pecul-

Muravief, Gen., made Governor

land,
iii.

365.
i.

243

great

cruelty

Monarchy,
iarity of,

Russian, 282.

Poland,

-244.

MURIDISM,
casus,
iii.

or fanatical faith of the Caui.

"NASTEries and monks restrained, ii. 93. Mongols, invade and ruin Calitdi.i. 125; power of, weakened, 223 power of, be;

Mythology
51
;

284. of ancient Russian poets, Russian writers upon, iii. 270.

gins to decline, 254. Monks of St. Cyril rebuked

by Ivan,

i.

287.

N.
forbidden to join Turks,
iii.

MONTENEGRO
326.

N mm
168.
1.,
ii.

is

amP Hanover
I.,
ii.

important to Alex-

Mohals, public, sad condition of, ii. MOKDINOF, letter of, to Alexander
300.

ander
ing,
ii.

275.
at

Napoleon, wins

Eylau, but gains noth-

Morozof, minister
of.
i.

of

Alexis,

movements

:;71

driven into convent of Si.

Cyril, 372.

2Mt; seeks to negotiate with the Powers, 289; stirs Turkey and Prussia agaiusl Russia, 290 attacks Benningsenal Friedland, 291 pride of, displayed
;
;

INDEX.
decides to repudiate Erfurt, 304 Josephine, 305 joins Fifth Coalition differs with Alexagainst Austria, 308 ander I., 314 plan of, for reconstructing Poland, 315 gives Poland his Civil Code, 316 joins his army at Dresden, 323 surprises Vilna, 326 parleys with Alexander I., 328 enticed by Russian retreat, 330 ; orders forward his reserves, 331 enters Moscow with army, evacuates Moscow, and retreats, 338 leaves army with Murat, 343 341 masses his new army on the Elbe, 346 pressed quarrels with Metternich, 348 by the Allies, 351 offers the "Conditions of Frankfort," 353 makes vigorous defence of French posts, 355 dethroned by the senate, 360 ; returns
at
; ;

401
I.,
;

Nicholas

succession given to, iii. 14 insurgents, 16-18 becomes and illiberal, 21 makes demands on Turkey, 38 invades Turkey on the north, 40 ; attends Diet of Warsaw, 48 proclamation against Polish revolt, 61 unfortunate jealousy of, for Fiance, 73 seeks to annoy France, undertakes against revolution, 80 77 complains of Turkey, 87 seeks favor
disperses despotic
; ;
;

with England, 87 sentiments of, to English minister, 89 seeks to partition Turkey with England, 90 his policy penetrated by England, 92 seeks alliance with Austria and Prussia, 137
; ; ;
;

rejects

proposition
of,

141 170

death

of Napoleon III., and notes of character,

despair

of, after

Eupatoria, 172.

to Paris, 362.

Napoleon

III., slow action of, in Eastern Question, iii. 123 imperial letter of, to the Tsar, 140. battle Narva, of, between Peter I. and Charles XII., ii. 54 retaken by Peter I.,
; ;

Nihilism, beginning of, in Russia, iii. 263 its literary friends and enemies,
;

264.

59.

Nihilists, proclamation issued by, iii. 384 arrested and executed, 387. Nikolai, Fort, taken by Turks, iii. 128 ; destruction described by Langlois, 200.
; ,

Nashtchokin, Aphanasi,
of,
i.
;
;

great services

Grand Duke, seeks

iii.

to cross Bal-

395 builds first Russian vessel, 395 founds the press in Russia, 395. Nastasia Zima tortured for Lutheranism, 396.
ii.

375. Nikolaief, arsenal 203.

kans,

of,

saved by treaty,

iii.

94.

Nikon,
marries Alexis,
i.
; ;

or Nitika, religious seclusion

of,

i.

Natalia Naruishkin
Navarino, Turkish
39.

fleet

destroyed

at,

iii.

Navigation, steam, development

251.

of, iii.

389 becomes Patriarch of Moscow, 390 overcomes monks of White Sea, 391 resigns as Patriarch, 392 imprisoned by Council of Moscow, 392. Nikopolis, captured by Gen. Kriidener,
;
.

iii.

356.
titles of,

Navy,
94.
,

rapid growth

of,

under Peter

I., ii.

Nobility,
ii.

abrogated by Feodor,
;

81.

Russian, becomes active on Black 133 great improvement of, 323. Turkish, inactivity of, iii. 351. Nawtingall, envoy to Alexis from Charles I., i. 398. Nazimof, Rescript of, begins emancipaSea,
iii.
, ;

tion,

iii.

222.
his services,
iii.
;

Nesselrode, Count,
his
last

19

diplomacy with England, 98 his demand on Turkey, 114 succeeded

;

by Gortchakof, 309. Nestor, the Chronicler,

slaves,
i.
;

Peter, ii. 111-175 ask privileges on account of emancipation, iii. 228. Nolan, Capt., carries order at Balaklava, iii. 165. Novelists, various, eminent in Russia, iii. 259. Novgorod, early name of St. Petersburg, i. 25 first building of, 65 principality of, located, 98 Bogoliubski defeated at, 115 city, ancient, importance of,
;
; ; ;

Nobles, freed by

as to Russian 36 as to funeral pyres, 54 as to barbarous customs, 55. Neva, Dnieper, and Volga, influence of, i. posts upon, taken by Peter, ii. 58 28 great inundation from, 395. New Code, Commission formed to draw,
;
; ;

ii.

204.
;

Newspapers,

first one in Russia, ii. 100 increase of, 391. saves his division, ii. 342. Nicephorus brings Sviatoslaf against Pe-

Ney

127 republican government of, 129 throne of, offered to Sviatoslaf, 131 various troubles in, 132 political structure of, 133 methods of justice in, works and industries of, 136 134 punished by Dmitri, 204; fully annexed to Moscow, 206 reduced by Vasili, 213; moved against by Ivan III., 218; ceded to Kasimir IV. of Poland, 219; taken by Ivan, and republic ended, 220; punished by Ivan, ami fifteen hundred slain, 266 disturbance at, headed
; ; ; ;

ter,

i.

72.

by Wulk 373.

VOL. in.

26

402
0.

INDEX.
PAPER, Russian, decline in value
321.
to take,
iii.
t:

of,

ii.

Oath,

Yasili Shuiski

made

331-

Odessa,

bombarded by escapes bombardment,

Allies,

147

198.

Odyssey translated by Zhukovski, iii. 33. Oleg, second Variag prince, i. 66 invades killed by a serpent, 67. Tsargrad, 66 Oleg SviATOSLAVITCH makes civil war, i.
; ;

104.

Olga, Princess, stoiy

death of Igor, 68
;

avenges 56 converted to Christiof,

i.
;

anity, 69. , Saint, said to be native of Pskof,

i.

140.

Olgeild, succeeds Gedimin, i. 177 reduces Novgorod, 177; qnarrels with Poland, 178 ; expels Mongols from Crimea,
;

Paris, Peter visits ami inspects, ii. lit Allies reach, and reduce city of, 35b embassies last treaty made at, 365 present a1 treaty of, iii. 203; matters settled by treaty of, 204; peace with Russia gained by treaty of, 205. Paskievitch, Gen., besieges Warsaw, iii. marches into Hungary, 82. 67 Passoshkof writes on "Poverty and Riches," ii. 99. Patkt/L, his movements against King of Sweden, ii. 52 position of, in Poland, 64 arrested by Secret Council, 65 delivered to Charles XII., and executed,
;

65.

Patriarch
sia,
i.

system

recognized

in

Rusi.

178.

55.

Omer Pasha, name

iii.

for

Michael Lattas,

Patriarchate
316.

established at Moscow,

128
;

128

plans campaign on Danube, beats Russians at Oltenitsa, 129 ;

;

fortifies Kalafat, 129.

Orlof, and Elphinstone, naval expedition

of,
ii.

193

family of great influence,

Patriots, various, views of, as to Poland, iii. 242. Paul 1., his curious and frivolous characsecures alliance with various ter, ii. 249
;

203.

Count, obtains treaty with Turkey, iii. 75 despatched to Vienna, 137 fails in effort at Vienna, 138. Osip Nepia, Russian envoy to England,
,
;

i.

274.

exasperated with Austria his orders to the Don Cossacks, 264 conspiracy formed dies, strangled by conagainst, 268 spirators, 270. Pavel (or Paul I.) succeeds Catherine
;

powers, 252

and England, 202

;

Os.man Pasha

loses naval battle at Sirepulses Russians at nope, iii. L34 surrenders at Plevna, 367. Plevna, 357 Other, Norwegian navigator, visits England, i. 11. Otrepief, Gregory, character of, by Us;

II.,

ii.

248.

Peace of Tilsit, enthusiasm over, ii. 295. Peasantry, and lower classes, condition of, i. 292 made to be attached to the
;

soil,

of,
ris,
iii.

imposture of, 322 affili320 ates with Sigismund, 323; defeated by

trialof,
i.
;
:

315 attachment of, to soil, effects 316; uneasy condition of, under Bo323 question of freeing in Poland,
;

235.
free,

Vasili Shuiski. 325. , the False Tsar, indiscretion of,

Peasants,
i.

forced to

become

serfs,

ii.

207.

327

Oxrs
288.

slain in the Krenil, 329. River, alterations in its channel,

iii.

Pelissier, Gen., takes command iii. 183 his recall attempted, 188. PeROVSKA, Sophia, executed with eoilspirof French,
;

ators,

iii.

387.

Paganism, modern existence

P

of,

i.

42.

Persia, provinces of, given up by Anna, ii. 145; invades Russian Georgia, 217; Russia still at war with. 314; recommences war with Russia, iii. 36 ami ad;

mm

in,

lount, chief conspiratoi

;

Paul [., ii. 268 disgraced and dismissed from service, 271. Painters, eminent, belonging to Russia, historical and genre, 276. iii. 275 Painting not affected in Russia by Re30 I. naissance, Palace, Imperial, remaining buildings of,
;

jacent regions, troubles in, 43. Pestel, i'"!., promotes regicide movement, ii. 390; his plans noticed, iii. 14; and

Petchenegi, barbarous

others, executed for rebellion, 20. tribes conquered

i.

by, i. ll; repressed by Vladimir, 81 ; defeated by [aroslaf, S3. he False taken and hanged, i. I'i
1 1

i;

i.

308.

Palmkkstox, Lord,
of Krakov,
iii.
7'.'.

protests
of,

against

fall

Pamphlets,
iii.

bold tone

issued in Russia,

171.

1. (the Great), made Tsar at nine years old, ii. II; ami [van, both detaught by Zotof, 22 clared Tsars, is youthful habits of, 23 ; gets the better
; ;

INDEX.
of Sophia and her friends, 25 ; noted goes to Arkhanfor irregular life, 26 nearly perishes at sea, 27 27 gel, takes fails to take Azof at first, 28 meets great Azof by intrenchment, 30
; ; ; ; ;

403

Plateau, great, of Alaun, i. 20. Plays become frequent in Russia,

ii.

99.

takes supper popular prejudices, 31 with conspirators, 32 journeys to the singular behavior of, 34 "West, 33 splendidly received in Holland, 36 writes to Adrian as to his plans, 36 leaves Holland, and goes to England, returns 37 engages many workmen, 38 employs Patby way of Germany, 38 new preparakul against Sweden, 53 lays foundations of, after Narva, 57 captures tion of St. Petersburg, 58 Swedish vessels, 59 speech of, to army before Poltava, 73 ; treats Swedish prisproposes a peculiar oners kindly, 7-4
; ;
; ; ;

Pleischwitz, armistice signed at, ii. 347. Plevna, second battle of, lost by Russians, third battle at, lost by Rusiii. 359 at last completely invested, sians, 364
;

366.

Poems, heroic and romantic, frequency

i.

of,

304.

Poetry and Drama

267.

of Russia noticed,

iii.

Polanh, united
Lithuania,

and to Lithuania, i. 179 old jealousies of, i. 358 Augustus of, joins Russia against Sweden, ii. 53 war recommenced in, 146 national causes of its final ruin, 185
; ; ;

weakness
of,

fidelity of, to Russian despotism, 77 founds the State Inquiinterests, 78 seeks to divert trade to the sition, 90 stimulates literary service, Baltic, 95 acknowledges his wife, Catherine, 98 108 ; reaches the Pruth, but retreats, invades Sweden with fleet, 112 109 political relations of, with Europe, 113 visits Parisian journeys to Paris, 114 workshops, 115 calls on Mad. de Maintenon, 116 subdues Sweden by Peace of becomes broken down, Nystad, 118 fierce and impetuand soon dies, 124 great equestrian ous nature of, 125
;
; ;

statue
Tsar,

of,

215.
121.
;

Peter, the Archimandrite, seeks death of

ii.

proposed under regency, ii. 127 dies of smallcrowned at Moscow, 131 pox, 132 doubt as to successor of, 134.
II.,
;

III.,
;

accession

of,

to

throne,
;

ii

ill unexpected policy of, 174 174 friend of conduct of, in private, 176 Frederic of Prussia, 177; foolish devoabdicates in tion of, to Frederic, 178 favor of wife, as Catherine II., 180 killed by Alexis Orlof, 181. Petrof, Anton, insurrection under, iii. 227.
; ;

religious difficulties of, 186 agonized by religious war, 190 finally dismembered by Three Powers, second 195; progress of reforms in, 233 partition of, by Russia and Prussia, 235 ; last fall of, caused by aristocracy, 238 dismemberment and ruin of, 244 terriand tory of, entered by French, 266 Russia, hatred between soldiers of, 309 ; flourishes awhile under Napoleon, 317 great enthusiasm in, for Napoleon, 327 ; reconstruction fourth partition of, 362 condition of, under Nicholas, of, 367 revolt in, makes progress, 49 iii. 47 outconspiracy in, ready to strike, 50 insurrecbreak of insurrection in, 51 sudden increase tion in, fails at first, 52 efforts to stay of insurrection in, 53 insurgents in, mutual disrevolt in, 55 trifling spirit of the people, trust of, 56 60 ; deprived of all nationality, 70 ; reearly ligious results of depression of, 71 hopes for visit of Alexander II. to, 210 insurrection in, improvement of, 234 fighting by insurgets desperate, 239 end of last regents throughout, 240
;

188

volt in, 245.

Polatski, Simeon, the Poet of Reform,

393.

i.

Philaret
350.

set free,

and made Patriarch,

i.

Philip, Archbishop, executed by Ivan IV.,

i.

Poles, in Moscow, collide with Russians, i. 339 defeated before Moscow by Poyarski, Russians make treaty with, 350 343 make treaty defeated at Zbarosh, 378 with Khmelnitski, 379 have fresh suc;

265.
iii.

Philippson, Curator, quits body of students,

cess against Russians, 384. Polevoi, Nikolai, eminent editor,

iii.

27.

248.

Polianka, Congress
;

of,

makes peace with

of,

Physicians, danger attending their profemale, Russian ladies fession, i. 299

255. Pisemski, novelist, his work sketched, 260. Plains, vast, found in Russia, i. 19
for,
iii.

preparing

iii.

Poland, i. 354. Police, secret court of, harsh doings abolished, 175. ii. 90 Polish Succession, diplomacy as to, 145 fresh agitation of, 184.
; ;

ii.

of

Russia, political unity of, 31. Planus Carpinus describes Grand Horde,
i.

Polotsk, principality of, located, i. 100. Poltava, or Pultowa, Charles XII. beCharles wounded before, sieges, ii. 72
;

165.

72

moral

effects of victory of, 75.

404
Polykarpof
101.

INDEX.
writes history of Russia,
of Poland,
ii.

Pushkin,
XII.,
ii.
,

writer,
68.

his opinion

of Charles

Poniatovski becomes King

185.
,

ii.

Alexander, greatest Russian poet,

iii.

iii.

28.

Joseph,

commands

Polish army,

ii.

316.
iii.

Putiatin, Count, oppresses students, 247 appealed to by them, 248.

;

PoPOF, Admiral, invents " Circular Monitor,"

46.

Population
i.

323. of different parts of Russia,

Q.

Posseyins, Antonio, Pope's legate to Rus271. Potemkin, great success

sia,
i.

Quakers, deputation
I.,
ii.

of,

visit

Alexander

383.

and influence

Quarantine
of,
iii.

Battery, severe fight before,

honors to, after Treaty of Constantinople, 224 encouraged by Catherine II., 227 captures city of Otchakof, 230; moves against Selim III., 230. Pototski, Gen., to lead Polish revolt, iii.
ii.

204

182.

R.

Raditski, Gen., carries Shipka Pass,

376.

iii.

51.

Powers,
378.

Great, check plans of Russia,

iii.

Raglan, Lord, dies of cholera, iii. 188. Railroads, Russian system of, iii. 250. Railways first introduced under Nicholas,
iii.

of the West, embassies sent to,

i.

24. in Russia,
i.

399.

Rainfall small
assault,
ii.

22.
of,
;

Praga, captured by
tle of, Poles

243

bat-

Raskolniki,
167
;

terrible

fanaticism
of,

ii.

repulsed at, iii. 65. Prague, Congress of, agreed to, ii. 348. Pratzen, desperate fight on plateau of,
282.

lenient treatment

ii.

Press, state of censorship of, iii. 233 daily, development of, 271 interdicted by police, 273 humorous, different
;

sheets noticed, 274.

Printing patronized by Ivan IV., i. 302. Productions, found in Piussian commerce,

i.

293

Prokopi
332.

agricultural, facts of, iii. 252. Liapl'nof joins insurrection,

i.

Protokol, London, signed and submitted, iii. 345 rejected by Turkey, 346. Provinces, benelits to, by new treaty, iii.
;

mildly cally oppose government, ; treated by Alexander I., 377. Read, Gen., attacks French at Traktir, iii. 191. Redan, English repulsed from, iii. 196. " Red Place," great execution in, i. 266. Reforms of Peter, opposition to, ii. 76 as to not to cause social changes, 77 as to titles of peasantry and slaves, 80 women, nobility, 82 as to seclusion of as to as to public amusements, 84 83 as to minor forms of government, 85 political affairs, 86 as to extortion in as to office, 87 as to civil law, 88
; ;
;

175 198

fanati-

378.

hospitals, 89 act against, 131.

police

and
in

Dolgorukis

re-

Prussia, treaty with, by Peter II., ii. 133 Russia becomes jealous of, 162 dismembered by Napoleon, 293 arrangements with, against Napoleon, 346 great, discouragements for, 347
; ; ;
;

Poland proposed by Diet of 234 begun and furthered by reaction Alexander I., 375 liberal, against, 384 promised by Alexander 11., iii. 211 ; create remarkable liberalism,
,

1791,

ii.

joins Russia against Poland,

iii.

245.

213.

Peuth, Russians repulsed from the, ii. 110; Treaty of the, made with BaltazhiMahomet, 110.
Pskof, city, present state of, described, i. 110; independence of, recognized by Novgorod, 141 city, taken by "Sword
;

RELIGION of the Russian Slavs, i. 51 largely tolerated by Peter I., ii. 94. " Retribution," English frigate visits
;

Sevastopol,

iii.

136.
42.
iii.

Revenge, singular mode of, i. Revenue, public, statistics of,

Bearers,"
of,

Mo

poetic lament over

fall

Revenues ami
Reviews,
ticed,
iii.

living of royal family,

237 ; sedition spreads to people of, 373. l'i blic Opinion, as affecting diplomacy, iii. 115. PUOATCHEF revolts under name of Peter
111.,
ii.

Russian, 273.

prominent

233. i. 284. ones no-

Revolts

in

many
ii.

States,

Alexander med-

199.
i.

Punishments,
286
;

severe and terrible, used, corporal, modified, iii. 232.

371. Revolution of 1741, significance of, ii. ideas of 1762, beginnings of, 17!' 157 French, of of, become prevalent, 389
; ; ;

dles with,

1848, consequences

of, iii.

80.

INDEX.
Rhededia, giant, slain by Iaroslaf, i. 83. Riazan, and Murom, principality of, lobattle of, and great defeat cated, i. 98 of Russians, 154 and Novgorod-Severski joined to Moscow, 237. Richelieu succeeds Talleyrand, ii. 365. Riesenkampf remarks on Russian trade,
; ;

405

i.

137.
of,

Rittich, views
35.

as to

native tribes,

i.

Rivers, found in Russia, i. 23 great imand lakes, system of, portance of, 24
;

25.

oppressed people look to Tsar, 369 greatness of, in service of Peter, ii. 79 divided by parties after Peter's death, 127 virtually ruled by Germans, 139 ; makes treaty with Poland, 189 withdraws troops from Warsaw, 189 progress of, under Catherine II., 211 and France, difficulties between, 251 and France operate in European affairs, 274 immense army raised by, 286 debate as to policy of, 344 and England, understanding between, 363 meets contempt at Madrid, 372 new plans for govern;
;

Roman,
123.

of Volliynia, conquers Galitch,

i.

ment
olas

of,
I.
,

iii.

380 laws of, codified by Nich22 history of, by Ustrialof,

; ; ; ;

Rosen, Gen., defeated by Poles at Igani,

iii.

66.

300. Governor of Moscow, his characcontrives to inspirit the ter, ii. 335 proclamation of, after Borpeople, 336 odino, 336. RorssET, writer, describes fall of Sevastopol, iii. 193.
ii.
-,
; ;

Rostoptchin

reviles the French,

troops of, enter Austria, 81 interferes in favor of Denmark, 84 publishes secret correspondence, 99 seeks to divide France and England, 107 fresh
; ;
;

26

Ruileef and
390.

Pestel, republican leaders,

ii.

Rumania,
iii.

349

joins Russia against Turkey, troops of, reinforce Russians,

defeats

361.

Rumiantsof
193.

Turks at Kabul,
i.

ii.

Runic,
"
i.

first

Variag prince,
or

65.
Iaroslaf,

Ruskaia Pkavda,"
84.

Code of

Russell,
topol,

W.

iii.

H., remarks on fall of Sevasdescribes powder explo197

;

diplomatic efforts to conciliate, 118 ; betrays real design on Turkey, 122 declines mediation of Austria, 133 questions France and England, 136 fails of alliance with Prussia, 139 receives ultimatum of Allies, 142 popular feeling in, after death of Nicholas, 171 serious losses of, by Treaty of Paris, 206 foreign ships admitted to ports of, 208; popular call for improvement in, 214; territorial policy of, 282 facile character of soldiers of, 303 keeps Italy and Denmark from Franco-Prussian War, 313; feeling of, after above war, 314 popular voice of, against Prussia, 315 jealousy of, toward Prussia, 316 demands truce
;

for

Serbia,

342

moves
;

for

correcting

sion, 199.

Russia, compared with rest of Europe, i. numerous seas of, 18 17 mountains and surface of, 19 White, limits defined, 45 Great, Little, Red, and Black
; ; ; ;

Turkish misrule, 342 threatening attitude of, toward Turkey, 343 prepares to march upon Turkey, 347 popular discontent in, 3S2 disappointed in her new ruler, 387 reflections on destiny
; ;
;

46 distributed into principalearly unity of race and lan96 guage, 101 capital centre of, changed, 112 invaded by Mongols in 13th century, 149 ; intestine troubles in, 167 laws of, as affected by Mongols, 170 religious heads of, at Moscow and Kief, 183 Eastern, gathered round Moscow, 185 condition of, at death of Vasili, 216 historians of, estimate of Ivan IV., 244 condition of, at accession of Ivan IV., 245 rapid extension of power of, 256 diplomatic position of, under Feodor, and Poland, with Sweden, all at 313 war, 314 and Poland, mutual attitude general ignorance after Mikhail, 357 provinces of, and superstition in, 324 conditroubled and demoralized, 331 imtion of, at end of Polish war, 345 repudiplores help from England, 348 Little, its ates union with Rome, 364
defined,
;

of,

388.

ities,

Russia, army of, Swedes defeat at Narva, ii. 55 defeated at Friedland, 292 enters Turkey, iii. 117 force and position of, 153 commanders of, noticed, 161 great sortie of, fails, 180 modern plan of recruiting, 321 first draft to recruit,
; ;

322.
,

fleet of,

destroyed by storm,
;

i.

66

Turkish vessels, ii. 229 taken by Admiral Cotton, 306. people of, combine to stop civil -,
defeats

war,

i.
;

341

terrible

ignorance

of,
;

ii.

incline to liberal ideas, 387 ness of, to learn, iii. 252. Russian, character, energy of, i. 48
;

198

aptcapi-

tal upon Danube proposed, 72 warriors disguised as merchants, 89 Christianity, sources and influence of, 90 Chris; ;

tianity,

moral

effects of, 92.

Russians

proper,

proportion

to

other

40G
tribes,
;

INDEX.
Serfdom,
iii.

drive Asiatic Turks into i. 45 Kars, iii. 128; attacked by Turks at Tchetat, 130 ; gain something at Balaklava, 166; prepare to attack Allies, 190 defeated at Traktir Bridge, 191.
;

great

men working
condition

to destroy,

34.
;

S.

Saardam, Peter works

in,
ii.

at

boat-building

35.

of, i. 3C6 Serfs, intolerable emancipation of, Speranski favors, ii. debate on emancipation of, iii. 381 218; numbers and situation of, 219; their own estimate of their condition, how 220 approaching freedom of, 221 organized after emancipation, 226 some of, refuse terms of freedom, 227. Sergius, St., patron of Muscovite princes,
;
; ;

Sacrifices, human, tribes charged with,

i.

i.

204.

42.
of,
i.

Sadko, merchant of Novgorod, story

139.

Saint-Martin,
tribes,
i.

views

of,

as

to

native

35.

Saint-Simon, gives character of Peter, ii. remarks on Russian alliance, 116. 114 Saints made by Russian church from old
;

Sevastopol, visited by Alexander I., ii. Allies proceed to, iii. 151 topog398 raphy of, 157 account of city of, 158 fortifications of, 159 landward defences bombarded a second of, finished, 162 a third time bombarded, time, 1S1 fourth bombardment of, 186 185; fifth and bridge Imili in harbor of, 189
; ; ;

gods,
sions,

i.

53.
37'.'.

last

bombardment
;

of,

193

evacuat d

Salisbury, Lord, as to new treaty proviiii.

Salonica, consuls murdered

at, iii. 332.

iii.

by Russians, 196 final destruction of works at, 200. Seymour, English minister, his interview
with Nicholas,

Samarcand,
i.

city

of,

noticed,

292.

SAMOK.VA80F, ancient dwellings found by,

57.

Shagan, Joseph,
zarui,
i.

iii. 88. his account of the

Khaof, iii.

43.

Sax

Stefano, Treaty
iii.

of,

amended

at
i.

Shah Indeh, mosque

292.

in

memory
new

Berlin,

379.

Schlitte, the Saxon, sent to German v,

257.

Shakhavskoi proclaims
i.

Pretender,

332.

Schonbrunn, Treaty
284 SCHOOLS,
ii.
;

of,

makes

fresh war.

Shamyl,
42
:

Congress of, its results, 310. first founded by Vladimir, i. SI technical, established by Peter, ii. 98 system of, undertaken by Alexander,
378.

leader of mountain tribes, iii. becomes leader of the Murids, 284 wonderful escapes and final capture ol.

284

dies a captive at Kaluga, 285.

i.

Shemiaka, attacks Moscow,

ates same, 213.

212

evacu-

Schuyler, Eugene, remarks on Central

Asia,
iii.

286

as to Russian attitude,
of,

315.

Sheremetief, made Field Marshal, ii. 57; defeats Swedes at Errestfer, 57; again defeats them at Hummelsdorlf,
58
;

Science, retrograde fortune

sia,
ii.

in Rus-

quells revolt at Astrakhan, 60.

-' :

385.

Scriptures, Slavonic, revised by Nikon,

i.

390. 275.

Pass, evacuated by Turks, iii. 355; Turks fail to recapture, ;62. Ships, Peter builds, on the Don, ii. 29;

Shii'ka

Sculptors, eminent, belonging to Russia,

iii.

foreign,

admitted

to

Russian ports,

iii.

208.

Scythians, ancienl
i.

barbarous habits

of,

Shuvalof,
168
:

33.

Ivan, promotes literature, ii. sent with Napoleon to Elba, 360.

SEA-FIGHTS,
ii.

several,

won

against Swedes,
i.

Sibi
i.

R,

Siberiaa capital, taken by Irmak,

58.
in Russia,

277.
66.

Seas, numerous, found

18.

SlERAVSKI, Gen., defeated hy Russians,

iii.

"Secret

<

'(invention,"
;

by

France

and

signed at Erfurt-, 305. Russia, ii. 273 Ski.im [II. deposed by Janissaries, ii. 312. reSknai e, founded by Peter, ii. 85
:
i

Sigismond, prevented from crowning Vitovt, i. 183; threatens English trade,

281.
of Poland, besieges

iblished as a1
l>'"\

lirst,

167

made

<

!ourt

Smolensk, 336
;

-.1

Lsion,

iii.

231.
insur-

Seraphim and Evgeni abused by

tits,
iii.

18.
in,
ii.

Serbia, massacre of Christians

threatening
of,

movements

of,

iii.

311 340

treachery againsl Russia, 338 capinvited to enter Moscow, 339 tures Smolensk and takes Vasili, 340. hy RusSilistria unsuccessfully besieged

plans

sians,

iii.

47.

defeated by Turks, 341.

SILVESTER,

priest,

minister of Ivan IV.,

INDEX.
i.

407
;

251

and Adashef, quarrel with Ivan

;

IV., 258 ; banished from court, 260 his " Domostroi," or Rules of Society, 301. Simeon the Proud, succeeds Ivan Kalita,
i.
;

denly disgraced, 323 advancement and plans for constituinttuencj of, 379 reforms of, meet tional changes, 380
; ;

opposition, 381. St.

ii.

Petersburg, decided foundation

101
;

of,

195 ; styled " Grand Prince of all the encourages arts and Russians," 196 manufactures, 196. Simpson, Gen. James, succeeds Lord Raglan,
iii.

built on islands, 102 inundated more progressive than by Neva, 104 Moscow, 104 ; joy in, for victory over
; ;

188.
princes,
i.

return to, obtained by Swedes, 118 terrible flood covers, Ostermanu, 143
;

SlNEUS and Truvor, Variag

Sinope, battle
tion,
iii.

65.

395.

of,

causes general indigna-

States-General convened to
i.

elect Tsar,
of,

134.
iii.

318.

Sistova, passage forced and captured by

Russians,
Sit, battle
iii.

Statistics, eminent students

sia, iii.

in Rus-

353.

280.
patriot,
;

of, and Iuri II. slain, i. 155. Skobelef, Gen., saves Russians at Plevna,

Stein,

German
ii.

ander,

323

advanced by Alexand Anslett, obtain

360

hardships

of,

at Plevna, 365

brilliant assault of, at Shenovo, 376. Skoropadski, last hetman of Ukraina,

Stenko Razin
ii.
;

Treaty of Kalish, 345. ravages Eastern Russia, finally defeated by Boriatinski, i. 388
388.
of Poland,

50.

Skrzynetski, Gen., succeeds to Polish command, iii. 65 repulsed at Ostro;

Stephen Batory made King

i.

270.
;

lenka, 66.

Slaves held by most Russians, i. 89. Smolensk, principality of, located, i. 97 attacked and taken by Vasili, 238 and Krasnoe, hard fighting at, ii. 330

Steppes, of Kirghiz, i. 20 arable, zona barren, region of, 29. of, 29 Stolbovo, Peace of, by Russia and Swe;

den,

i.

349.

Stone, houses

evacuated by the French, 341. Sobieski becomes King of Poland, i. 387. Societies and Orders, increase of, in Russia,
ii.

389.
;

of, forbidden save in St. Petersburg, ii. 103. Stones, every boat forced to bring to St. Petersburg, ii. 103. Stratford," Lord, seeks to restrain Men-

Society, in Novgorod, constitution of, i. minor relations of, 293 of the 1 35 North, action of, iii. 15 agricultural, agricultural, broken of Poland, 235
;
;

shikof,

iii.

111.

up, 237.

Softas, revolt
337.

of,

at Constantinople,

iii.

Streltsui, revolt of, against Matveef, ii. arrested surrender to Sophia, 19 16 executed at by Romodanovski, 42 wholesale by Peter, 43. Strogoxoff, Gregory, gets lands on the
; ;
;

Kama,
other conspirators subdued,
70.
iii.

i.

277.

Sokovnim and
ii.

Students, Turkish, urge Sultan to war,

121; Russian, trouble excited with,
first

32.

Soldiery opposed to Christianity, i. Solixtkof defeats Prussians, ii. 165. Solovief attempts life of Emperor,
382.

247.

Suffrage
iii.

promoted by Nicholas
attacks Shipka

I.,

iii.

23.

Suleiman Pasha
i.

Pass,
i.

Soloviof, opinion
234.

of,

as to Ivan III.,

iii.

361. in all Russia,

Superstitions indulged
299.

Songs, ancient Tchud, deploring slavery,

i.

146.
;

Suvarof,
tin, 249.

Prince, replaces

Count Putia-

Sophia, determines to become Regent, ii. triumphs flattered by writers, 15 14 and becomes Regent, 17 has her seat quarrels with behind the throne, 18 seeks to supplant Peter, 24 Peter, 22 banished to a monastery, 26 conspires stirs up trouble with against Peter, 32 Streltsui, 41 imprisoned in convent, 44. of Anhalt becomes Catherine II.,
;
; ;
:

Suvorof, or Suwarrow,
;

relieves Prince ol

ii.

178.

Naruishkin, death

of, ii.

396.
ii.
;

Speraxski, Mikhail, notice

ol,

297

made

Secretary of

State,

29S

sud-

Koburg, ii. 230 takes Praga by assault, 243; his contempt of Prussian styles, 250 recalled from retirement, 254 his his action as Marshal of Austria, 255 famous passage through the Alps, 260 ; story of his wonderful retreat, 260. Suzdal, principality of, located, i. 99._ Sviatoslaf, important reign of, i. 70 takes tribwages Bulgarian War, 71 ute from Greeks, 71 declines duel with evacuates Greek frontier, Zimisces, 75
; ; ;

40S
75
;
;

INDEX.
Thiers, M., his
sia, iii.

slain by Petchenegi, 76 portrait by Leo the Deacon, 76. Sweden, movements of Patkul in, ii. 52 urges war with Russia, 117 affairs
of,
; ;

fruitless

mission to

Su*

314.

Thieves and
Peter,
ii.

extortioners punished by
battle
of, of,

87.

with, get complicated, 158 threatened by Russia and Prussia, 196 fleet of, repulsed at Hogland, 228.
; ;

"

Three Emperors,"
ii.

281

conference

at

described, Berlin, iii.

Sword- Beakers, Order

144.

of,

founded,

i.

Swords,
58.

ancient, story of, from Nestor,

i.

320. Tilsit, remarkable conference at, ii. 293 ; treaty of, general terms of, 294. Timmermann teaches Peter use of boats,
ii.

23.
i.

" System of the North," of Catherine

ii.

II.,

Timttr defeats Vitovt on the Vorskla,

181.

183; abandoned by Russia, 221.

Todleben,
Plevna,
iii.

Gen.,
365.

ordered

to

invest
i.

Tokhtamuish, puts Mamai

Talitski writes against Peter,

to death,

Talleyrand, plan
ii.

of,

ii. 93. to break Coalition,

203 ; sacks and burns Moscow, 203. Tolstoi, Count Alexis, dramatist,
266.
,

iii.

319.

Leof, writer of romance,

iii.

266.

chief of Mongols, attempts to invade Russia, 207. Tashkent, great city of Turkestan, iii. 289 city of, taken by Abramof, 298. Tatar Hordes, dissensions among, i. 224 broken up by strategy, 226.
i.

Tamerlane becomes
203
; ;

Towns, new, many founded by Catherine

210. Tradition as to subjection of Mordva, i. 121.
II.,
ii.

Traditionary
i.

literature,

abundance

of,

303.
279. in Russia, older, noticed,
i.

Tatars, or
;

Tartars, characters of, by Chinese, i. 150 retire from Russia, 153 invasions of, results to Russia, take census of Novgorod, 163 ; 158 imposts of, resisted by Russians, 163 hold complete rule in Russia, 168 tolfurther trouble erate all religions, 172 with, 240 ravage open country, 241 and Turks, besiege Astrakhan, 268 ; and other nations, relations to Russia, 319
; ; ; ; ;
; ;

Travel, excellent Russian works upon,

iii.

Travellers
300.

Trebia, Macdonald repulsed at, ii. 257. Trediakovski, works and troubles of, ii.
170.

Trees found

in Northern Russia, Trepof, Gen., shot by Sasulitch,

i.

28.

iii.

382.

invade
;

Nova

Serbia,

ii.

191.

Taxes, system of assessing and collecting, management of, under Peter, i. 293
ii.

Tribes, ancient, according to Herodotus, i. 35 ancient, compared with modern, 35 outlying, on Russian frontier, 143. Tributes, mode of exacting and collect; ;

91.

ing,

i.

88.
of,

Ten artoriuski, memorial

I.,
ii.

to

Alexander
ii.

TROITSA, Convent

besieged,

i.

334.
iii.
;

285.
322.

T( iikrnichef, envoy to Napoleon,

Tundras, region of, i. 21. TURGENIEF, writes against serfdom,

;

Tchernigof, principality located, i. 98. "Tchin," or Order of Rank, fixed by

Peter,
ii.

34 novelist, bis character noted, 258 attacks Socialism, 263.

Tchorlu,
377.

table of, 400. last battle of the

;

82

Turkestan, government
war
at,
iii.

of,

re-created,

iii.

299; Eastern, recovered by Chinese,

declares

303.
of,

TELEGRAPH, extension
251.

outlined,

iii.

TURKEY
353
;

Temperature, great range of, i. 22. Temples and priests not in early history,
i.

52.

war against Poland, i. war with Russia, ii. 107, 'bins and 1 92, 227 fleet of, defeated at makes hasty peace with Tchesmi, 193 Russia, L96 war with, fresnly urged,
declares
;

Temutchin,
of,
i.

or

Ghenghis Khan, conquests

229

151.

seeks favor with Napoleon, 310 ; shelters finally reduces Serbia, 313
:

Terletski, Bishop, made Deputy Patriarch, i. 362 intrigues with Sigismond,

;

Hungarian refugees,

iii.

83

relations

of,
;

363.

discussed by Russia and England, '''' proposal of Nicholas I. to partition, 94

state of, at

Teutonic Knights, Order

I

of, founded, i. attacked by Vitovt, 182. Theatre, first, founded by Volkof, ii.
It;
;

171.

Menshikof's visit, lot: proasks diplomacy in, 109 changes in "Vienna Expedient," 120; wisdom of its Cabinet made plain, 122
gress
of
;
,

INDEX.
Great Council of, again reject " Vienna Expedient," 125 integrity of, maintained by Treaty of Paris, 204 attracfinances tive reforms offered by, 327 increasof, embarrassed state of, 328 ing difficulties of, with insurgents, 331 indorses atrocities in Bulgaria, 334 ; rerejects proposals of Conference, 344 plies to manifesto of Russia, 348. Turkish Army occupies Eupatoria, iii.
;
;

409
for

Vasili Galitsuin, minister

ii.

Sophia,

20.

Ivanovitgh,
of Pskof,
;
;

arrests magistrates

humbles Pskof and i. 235 ends republic, 2o5 quarrels with Sigismond, 238 establishes fair at Makarief, 241 strengthens himself as Auto;
;

crat, 242.

168.

Tukkmantchai, Peace
War,
iii.

of,

ends Persian

37.

Turkomans, doubtful status of, iii. 302. Turks, movements of the Powers against,
20 wanton barbarity of, at Plevna, agree to armistice and basis of iii. 364
ii.
; ;

Shuiski, denounces the l'alse conspires against Otrei. 327 succeeds to throne, 330 pief, 329 makes alliance with Sweden, 335 abdicates throne of Russia, 337. Vengrov, battle of, fought with insurgent
Dmitri,
;

Poles,

iii.

241.
III.,

Venice, negotiations with, by Ivan

i.

232.

Tush

peace, 377. insurgents of, join Sigismond, i no, i. 336. Tver, insurrection at, against Mongols, i. 191 House of, new struggle with, 199. Tverdillo betrays Pskof to Livonians, i.
;

Verona, Congress of, assembled, ii. 372. Viasma, battle of, won by Ney and Eugene,
ii.

341.
141.

Viatka, new colony formed from Novgorod,

iii.
i.

Victor Emanuel, made King

310
;

140.
IT.

of Italy, recognized by Russia, 310.

Ukraina, hardy and

free people of, i. 367 Charles XII. ceded to Russia, 399 approaches Russia by way of, ii. 70 Jews and Catholics persecuted in, 190. Union of Lublin, consequences of, i. 359. United States brings home Kossuth, iii. 83 continued friendliness with Russia, purchases Territory of Alaska, 307
;
; ;

of England visits with Louis Napoleon, iii. 179. Vienna, Conference of, contrives pacific expedient, iii. 119 attempts mediation,

Victoria

132.
,

Great Conference

of, iii.

178

fails,

179.
,

Peace

of,

ends Polish War,

ii.

147.
93.
i.

Vikulof becomes hermit author, ii. Villages and Communes, nature

56.

of,

307.

Vilna, terror and destruction

allies

at,

ii.

344.
i.

Ussum Hassan
224.

with Ivan

III.,

i.

Vinno de Rohrbach, Grand

144.

Master,

Ustrialof,
i.

writer, his opinion of Feodor,

311

writes

History of Russia,

iii.

Vitovt, besieges Castle of Vilna, i. 180 betrays Iuri and pillages Smolensk, 180

26.

V.

Valdai, plateau
24.

of,

great river source,

i.

brings great force against Tatars, 181 gains battle of Tannenberg, 182. Vladimir, early character of, i. 77 marexamines all reRogneda, 78 ries besieges Khei-son, 79 ; is ligions, 79 debaptized and marries Anna, 80
; ;
; ;

of the Dwina, noticed, i. 20. Vaxka Kain, notorious robber, ii. 168. Variagi, tribe of, traced and defined, i. 60 further defined, 61 ; habits and disname of Russia given positions of, 63
; ;

Valley

by, 64.

Va.ina, allied camp

150.

at,

broken up,

iii.

stroys idols and baptizes people, 80. and Evfrosinia executed, i. 265. Monomakh succeeds to throne, advice of, to his sons, 107 106 i. people of, subdue Suzdal, 119. Vladislaus of Poland, proposes for invades Moscow, 350. throne, i. 337 Volga, River and branches, i. 26 early
;

Vases, ancient, of silver and gold, i. 34. Vasiij, combat of, at Novgorod, i. 1 succeeds Dmitri in Moscow, 205 makes treaty with Vitovt, 209. the Blind, succeeds to throne in
:'.'.'
;

civilization

upon, 27
of,

Dnieper, and

Neva, influence

28.

Volhynia, principality located, i. 100. Volkof, minister of Peter III., humanity

Voltaire,
175. as to Catherine II., ii. 1S2 ; close correspondent of Catherine II., 215.
of, ii.

Moscow,
211
ces
;

i.

210

returns to

with Iuri, Moscow, 212 denountroubles

of,
;

union with Rome, 215.

410

INDEX.
WlLMOT,
sians,

Yoluinski, character of, by Solovief, ii. 15ii famous jest upon, by Kurakin,
;

ii.

Miss, ridicules French 802.

ii.

and Rus-

convicted of conspiracy, 151 executed for same, 152. Vorontschof, predictions of, as to Prus;

151

Wilson, English envoy, denounces Peace

of Tilsit,
21.

295.
of,

Winds, great influence

in Russia,

i.

sia,

ii.

163.
of,
i.

Vsevolod, ambitious reign

,

119.
i.

Women,
i.
; ;

130

first

Gabriel, exiled from Novgorod, ruler of Pskof, 140.

55 295 abject condition of, in Russia, 296 freed from seclusion bv Peter, ii.
;

treatment of, in ancient times, secluded and tyrannized over,

83.

W.
Wallace, Englisb
of,
i.
,

traveller, observations 50 remarks on the Tsars, 172. Mackenzie, remarks on serfage,

;

Ypsilanti defeated by Turks,

ii.

373.

iii.

223.
civil,

War,

of Oleg, ended by peace, i. of David of Vblhynia, 105 triple, arising from Peace of Tilsit, ii. 306 ;

Zalivski, revolutionist leader in Poland,

iii.

105

48.

Zaporoshtsui, wild
i.

127. Warsaw, Polish insurrection reaches, ii. 240 terrible riots in, iii. 68, 236, 237
iii.
;
;

opened by Turkey at Isaktcha,

368; tribe

<>i',

tribes of the Dnieper, extinguished, ii. 201.

Zaiuiski captured and executed, i. 346. Zhbrkievitch, writer, as to Kutusof, ii.

342.

invested by Paskievitch, 68 finally entered and subdued, 69. Diet of, seeks to amend Constitution, ii. 233 action of, as to revolt, iii. 59 ruled by insurgents, 63.
, ; ;

Zimkovski, eminent Russian

iii.

translator,

32.
of,

ZlELENTSE, battle

fought

by Ponia-

Widows, burning
i.

of,

for

dead husbands,
sail

53.

Willoughby, and
North
Sea,
i.

Chancellor,
;

for

272

lost

with his two

vessels, 273.

towski, ii. 236. Zimisces, John, gains fight at Dorosto], i. 75 challenges Sviatoslaf to duel, 75. Zorndorff, Russians beaten at, ii. 165. ZXTBOK stnt against Mohammed, ii. 247. Zurich, Massena wins victory at, ii. 259.
;

From the sentence "Toward the end of the year, " on page 86, unto the end of Chapter V., page 126, in Volume III., is mainly a paraphrase from Camille Rousset's admirable history of the Crimean War.

University Press

John Wilson

&

Son, Cambridge.