Project 1 Billion

International Congress of Ministers of Health for Mental Health and Post-Conflict Recovery

BOOK OF BEST PRACTICES

TRAUMA AND THE ROLE OF MENTAL

HEALTH IN POST-CONFLICT RECOVERY

December 3-4, 2004

Rome
 Project 1 Billion

BOOK OF BEST PRACTICES

TRAUMA AND THE ROLE OF MENTAL

HEALTH IN POST-CONFLICT RECOVERY

Editors

Richard F. Mollica, M.D., M.A.R.

Ranieri Guerra, M.D.

Robina Bhasin, B.A.

James Lavelle, L.I.C.S.W.

1
CONTENTS

Contributors 4

Foreword 7
Richard F. Mollica, MD, MAR

Section I: Mental Health Policy and Legislation

1. Overview of Mental Health Policy and 8

Legislation in Post-Conflict Recovery
Beverley Raphael, AM, MBBS, MD, FRANZCP,
FASSA, FRCPsych, Hon.MD

Section II: Financing of Mental Health Recovery

2. Funding Mental Health in Post-Conflict Countries 30

Nedim Jaganjac, MD

Section III: Science-Based Mental Health Services

3. Scientific Overview of the Role of Mental Health in Complex Emergencies 40

Richard F. Mollica, MD, MAR, Barbara Lopes Cardozo, MD, MPH,
Howard J. Osofsky, MD, PhD, Beverley Raphael, AM, MBBS, MD, FRANZCP,
FASSA, FRCPsych, Hon.MD, Alastair Ager, BA, MSc, PhD, AFBPsS,
Peter Salama, MBBS, MPH, and Laura McDonald, MALD

4. Evidence-Based Mental Health Treatments for Children and Adolescents 75

In the Aftermath of Complex Humanitarian Emergencies and Mass Violence
Victor Balaban, PhD

5. Traditional Healing in Conflict / Post-Conflict Settings 94

Seganne Musisi, MD and Pratiwi Sudarmono, MD

6. Psychosocial Programs 111

Alastair Ager, BA, MSc, PhD, AFBPsS and Maryanne Loughry, PhD

7. Considerations in Planning Mental Health Services in 124

Conflict-Affected Countries in the Developing World
Derrick Silove, MD

8. Burn-Out Among Humanitarian Aid Workers 153

Barbara Lopes Cardozo, MD, MPh

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Section IV: Building an Ongoing Program of Mental Health Education

9. Continuing Medical Education As A Model For Mental Health 172

Training For Post- Conflict Countries
Aida Kapetanovic, MD

Section V: Coordination of International Agencies

10. Role of the World Health Organisation in Mental Health 199

Post-Conflict Recovery: Assisting Governments to Develop
or Reconstruct Mental Health Services
Mark van Ommeren, PhD, Benedetto Saraceno, MD,
and Shekhar Saxena, MD, DAB, MRCPsych

11. Working with the World Bank and Other Development Agencies 216
on Mental Health in Conflict and Post-Conflict Environments
Florence Baingana, MD and Betty Hanan

12. Post-Conflict Constellations of Violence and the Psychosocial 237

Approach of the International Organization for Migration
Natale Losi, PhD, and Renos Papadopoulos, PhD

13. The Role of Migration in Post-Conflict Recovery 266

Marco Mazzetti, MD, Lorenzo Tarsitani, MD, and Salvatore Geraci, MD

14. The Role of Non-Governmental Organizations in Post-Conflict Recovery 287

Oliviero Bettinelli, MD

Section VI: Mental Health Linkages to Economic Development

15. Mental Health Disabilities and Post-Conflict Economic and Social Recovery 309
Robert J. Muscat, PhD

16. Employment Focused Interventions in Post-Conflict Societies 326

Solvig Ekblad, PhD, Karin Johansson Blight, PhD (cand.)
and Fredrick Lindencrona, PhD (cand.)

Section VII: Mental Health Linkages to Human Rights

17. Human Rights and Mental Health in Post-Conflict Recovery 349

Eugene Brody, MD

CONTRIBUTORS

3
Alastair Ager, BA, MSc, PhD, AFBPsS
Professor and Director, Centre for International Health Studies, Queen Margaret College,
Edinburgh, Scotland

Florence Baingana, MD
Mental Health Specialist, World Bank, Washington, DC

Victor Balaban, PhD

Epidemic Intelligence Service Officer, National Center for Injury Prevention and
Control, National Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia

Oliviero Bettinelli, MD
Professor, Master of Political Science, Torino University, Director, Peace and
International Studies Department, Caritas of Rome, Rome, Italy

Robina M. Bhasin, BA
Research Assistant, Harvard Program in Refugee Trauma, Massachusetts General
Hospital, Cambridge, Massachusetts

Karen Johansson Blight, Doctoral Candidate

Transcultural Psychology and Psychiatry, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden

Eugene B. Brody, MA, MD, MSc (Hon)

Professor and Chairman Emeritus of Psychiatry, University of Maryland, Past Secretary
General (1983-1999), World Federation for Mental Health, Editor-in-Chief, Journal of
Nervous and Mental Disorder, Baltimore, Maryland

Barbara Lopes Cardozo, MD, MPh

Mental Health Expert, International Emergency and Refugee Health Branch, Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia

Solvig Ekblad, PhD

Adjunct Associate Professor in Transcultural Psychology, Division of Psychiatry,
Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden

Salvatore Geraci, MD
Director, Scholar in Public Health, La Sapienza University of Rome, Health Division of
Caritas Rome

Ranieri Guerra, MD
Head of External Relations Office of the Italian National Institute of Health, Istituto
Superiore di Sanita, Rome, Italy

Betty Hanan
Senior Operations Officer, World Bank, Washington, DC

4
Nedim Jaganjac, MD, MPh
Senior Health Specialist, World Bank, Washington, DC

Aida Kapetanovic, MD
Director, Bosnia Office, Harvard Program in Refugee Trauma, Massachusetts General
Hospital, Cambridge, Massachusetts

James Lavelle, LICSW

Director of International Programs, Harvard Program in Refugee Trauma, Massachusetts
General Hospital, Cambridge, MA

Frederik Lindencrona, Licensed Psychologist, Doctoral Candidate

Transcultural Psychology and Psychiatry, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden

Natale Losi, PhD

Head of Psychosocial and Cultural Integration Unit, International Organization for
Migration, Rome, Italy

Maryanne Loughry, PhD

Research Associate, Psychologist and Tutor for Refugee Studies, Campion Hall, Queen
Elizabeth House University of Oxford, Oxford, England

Marco Mazzetti, MD
Lecturer, University of Brescia, Caritas Health Service, Rome, Italy

Laura McDonald, MALD

Research Associate, Harvard Program in Refugee Trauma, Massachusetts General
Hospital, Cambridge, Massachusetts

Richard F. Mollica, MD, MAR

Professor of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Director, Harvard Program in Refugee
Trauma, Massachusetts General Hospital, Cambridge, Massachusetts

Seggane Musisi, MD
Head of Department of Psychiatry, Makerere University Medical School, Senior
Consultant Psychiatrist, Uganda Ministry of Health, Kampala, Uganda

Robert J. Muscat, PhD

Chief Economist, United States Agency for International Development, Economic
Advisor to Thailandís Development Planning Agency and Malaysian Ministry of
Finance, Consultant, World Bank, Washington, DC

Mark van Ommeren, PhD

Focal Point, Mental Health Issues Related to Emergencies, Department of Mental Health
and Substance Abuse, WHO, Geneva, Switzerland

5
Howard J. Osofsky, MD, PhD
Professor of Psychiatry, Chairman, Department of Psychiatry, Louisiana State University
Health Sciences Center, New Orleans, Louisiana

Renos Papadopoulos, PhD

Professor, University of Essex, Clinical Psychologist and Family Therapist, Travistock
Clinic, London, England

Beverley Raphael, AM, MBBS, FRANZCP, FASSA, FRC PSYCH, HON. MD

(Níclc, NSW)
Director, Centre for Mental Health for New South Wales, Emeritus Professor of
Psychiatry, University of Queensland, Sydney, Australia

Peter Salama, MBBS, MPh

Head of Health, Afghanistan Section, UNICEF, Kabul, Afghanistan

Benedetto Saraceno, MD
Director, WHO Department of Mental Health and Substance Abuse, Geneva, Switzerland

Shekhar Saxena, MD, DAB, MRC Psych

Coordinator, Mental Health: Evidence and Research, Department of Mental Health and
Substance Abuse, WHO, Geneva, Switzerland

Derrick Silove, FRANZCP, MD

Professor and Director, Psychiatry Research and Teaching Unit, University of New South
Wales, Sydney, Australia

Pratiwi Sudarmono, MD
Associate Professor, Department of Microbiology, University of Indonesia, Jakarta,
Indonesia

Lorenzo Tarsitani, MD
Research Fellow in Psychiatry, Department of Psychiatric Services and Psychological
Medicine, La Sapienza, University of Rome, Rome, Italy

6
 FOREWORD

This Book of Best Practices places its emphasis on the two words best and practices. In the
English dictionary, best refers to something most satisfactory or desirable, as well as something
that surpasses all others. Practices refers to something that is done customarily or habitually, as
well as an activity that is repeated in order to perfect a skill. In this volume, leading international
authorities from the developed and developing world have contributed their scientific knowledge
and experience to recommending the most satisfactory approaches to the care of traumatized
people throughout the world.

Each of the essays in this volume is written by an acknowledged scholar, scientist, policy maker
or clinician in areas related to mental health and post-conflict recovery.

The chapters follow closely the multi-disciplinary and multi-sectoral design of Project 1 Billionís
Mental Health Action Plan. For example, chapters on policy and legislation are included with
science-based mental health services and economic development.

Each author, in their respective area of expertise, wrote their discussion and recommendations
aimed at influencing the policy of Ministers of Health. Of course clinicians, academicians and
researchers will also find these chapters informative and helpful.

The Book of Best Practices and Action Plan are scientific documents. They were written
together with each serving as a foundation for the other. They should be considered as a single
voice, emphasizing the role of science in post-conflict recovery.

Cultural validity and geopolitical sensitivities have been considered in all chapters in the Book of
Best Practices. Users of this Book must adapt the science-based practices cited to their own
cultural settings and communities.

This Book of Best Practices and Action Plan are an historic first step in establishing a baseline
guide for a global mental health agenda. No longer can lack of scientific knowledge be cited for
neglecting, ignoring or only partially implementing feasible and sustainable mental health
programs in even the poorest countries.

Over 1 Billion persons have been affected by mass violence in recent years; many have
developed mental health related disabilities affecting their well-being, productivity and peaceful
existence. This Book of Best Practices aims at achieving a rational, culturally sensitive and
feasible comprehensive system of mental health care in post-conflict societies.

We look forward to this Book being used, critiqued and modified in the months and years ahead.

In conclusion, the editors would like to thank each of the authors for their extraordinary
contributions and our readers for their involvement in this historic effort.

Richard F. Mollica, M.D., M.A.R

December 2004

7
 CHAPTER 1

OVERVIEW OF MENTAL HEALTH POLICY AND LEGISLATION

IN POST-CONFLICT RECOVERY

Beverley Raphael, AM, MBBS, MD, FRAZCP, FASSA, FRCPsych, Hon.MD

ABSTRACT

Frameworks for mental health policy and programs are reviewed in this chapter. They
need to address mental health needs and outline the effective strategies that will be put in
place to address these needs. Infrastructure funding and workforce development need to
underpin these policy and program developments and are outlined in this chapter. In
addition policies need to be able to add a strong focus for the mental health impacts that
occur in conflict-affected societies, or those damaged by other complex emergencies.
Primary care is inherently the core framework through which mental health care is
delivered in all societies, but nowhere is this more prominent then in developing
countries where there are limited specialist mental health provisions.

Post conflict recovery and development must be supported by a strong and adequately
resourced commitment to mental policy backing programs to address identified need.
These programs in such settings will not only include delivery of core mental health
components, but also care for the traumatized populations.

Using primary care indigenous systems will build mental health capacity broadly, and in
culturally appropriate ways. Specialist mental health systems need also to be
strengthened and to incorporate these issues, while supporting the primary care sector.

Financing to support resource development for mental health will require a high priority,
to support workforce, education of the community and necessary infrastructure.

Mental Health legislation follows and links to such developments, but legislation may
also be needed to mandate services, including those for trauma recovery. Information
systems, research and evaluation, can extend the knowledge of what is good practice,
leading to good outcomes. Strong leadership, strong belief in a requirement for mental
health care, valuing this, removing stigma and making this commitment in partnership
with the community can be the ultimate step for development and renewal.

8
Mental health policy represents commitment of the government of a country to actively

addressing the issues of mental ill health within its population. To be of value any such

policy must identify effective actions that could provide the basis for implementation of a

mental health program to address identified needs. It must also be supported by a

commitment of will and human and financial resources. It should include clear aims and

objectives, such as those related to improving mental health, treating mental illness, and

so forth.

The basis for mental health policy is in a population mental health model, providing the

framework for meeting the mental health needs of the population identified as above and

a structure for setting priorities within these (Raphael 2000). This is linked to a template,

which quantifies the various components of service required to meeting different priority

levels of mental health need (NSW Health - Mental Health Clinical Care & Prevention

Model 2000).

Some of the core elements of such a mental health policy, or a blueprint or framework for

one, will be described below.

Additional issues for mental health policy arise in countries that have been subjected to

conflict, where there has been mass violence or disaster, and destruction of social and

physical infrastructures. Mental health consequences arise in association with the

psychological trauma, loss and dislocation in such conflict and post conflict settings and

significantly interfere with the capacity for recovery, and for development. Mental health

policies and programs need to build in capacity to deal with these problems, and also any

9
consequences for mental health of human rights abuse that may have occurred during the

conflict. There may also be requirements for empowering the administrative authorities

including health ministers and other Government agents, and for standards and

monitoring.

Mental health legislation follows and is integrated with mental health policy where there

are legislation requirements. Such legislation has been variable both within and between

nations. Earliest forms of legislation have aimed to protect society from the ìthreatî or

ìdangerousnessî believed to be associated with mental illness, whereas more recent laws

tend to be focused on protecting the rights of those with mental illnesses and in some

circumstances the right to treatment. A major issue in both policy and legislation relates

to stigma and fear associated with mental illness and the discrimination those affected

experience with regards to both the illness and the associated disabilities. Mental health

legislation may also need to specify requirements related to post-conflict circumstances

such as the need for and right to mental health care to address the psychological

consequences, as well as issues such as regulating international agencies, donor and NGO

roles.

NEEDS ASSESSMENT AS A BASIS FOR MENTAL HEALTH POLICY

Epidemiological studies can provide data on incidence and prevalence of mental

disorders in national and regional settings and thus baseline information for policy and

service frameworks. The recent WHO report on prevalence, severity and unmet need for

treatment covers developed and developing countries in the Americas, Europe, Middle

East, Africa and Asia (WHO Kessler et al 2004). It highlights the very high level of

10
unmet need for treatment of moderate and severe disorders in all countries, but this is

most pronounced in less-developed countries. Variable prevalence rates were reported.

The researchers highlight that while severity of disorder (and associated substantial role

disabilities) were associated with greater probability of treatment in all countries, in

developing countries between 76.3% and 85.4% of those with severe disorder had

received no treatment in the year before the interview assessment. In publications to date

this is not yet linked to presence of national policies and programs for mental health.

Nevertheless it is clear that whatever is in place in such settings is inadequate in terms of

the severe and disabling level of unmet need. This is also frequently reflected in lack of

specialist mental health providers, lack of mental health knowledge and capacity in the

primary care sector, as well as lack of priority for mental ill health when survival issues

predominate, as they do in some developing countries.

In addition there will be the needs associated with mental health impacts of conflict:

consequences of ethnic cleansing, rape, loss of family, profound physical injury,

displacement and loss of home, family, community and perhaps country and for some,

refugee status. Whether or not a model of PTSD is seen as the most culturally

appropriate framework in which to understand the morbidity and adaptive patterns that

evolve, it is clear that the consequences of conflict are damaging to function and may

have ongoing impacts beyond and on top of core mental health morbidity in the

population (Silove 1999). Management of mental health impacts through and after

conflict is likely to be essential to prevent as far as possible these disabling consequences

and to promote psychological and physical recovery for individuals affected, as well as

social recovery for the community.

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The assessment of needs can be summarized as follows:

i. Population incidence and prevalence of disorders should be assessed taking into

account disorder levels in children and adolescents, adults and older people.

ii. Information concerning risk and protective factors is important to inform

promotion and prevention as well as targeting treatment. Variables include social

disadvantage, inequity, trauma and social disruption

iii. Conflict trauma and disaster related needs may be estimated taking into account

factors such as the numbers of premature violent deaths, population displacement,

family loss and disruption and specific morbidities such as PTSD, depression and

social impairments

MENTAL HEALTH POLICY

The World Health Organization has surveyed mental health policies across the world and

provides a picture of some of the core elements of such policies, and their distribution

and limitations (WHO 2001a). This report defines mental health policy as: ìa

specifically written document of the government or ministry for health containing the

goals for improving the mental health situation of the country, the priorities among those

goals, and the main directions for attaining themî (p10).

This WHO report notes that such a policy may have components such as advocacy,

mental health promotion, prevention, treatment and rehabilitation (to optimize

functioning). It indicates that a mental health policy is present in 59.5% of the countries

and covers through these 85.1% of the worldís populations. Most policies are

comprehensive with 97% dealing with treatment, 93% with rehabilitation, 95% with

12
prevention, 89% with promotion and 80% with advocacy (WHO 2001a, p10). The vital

importance of countries having such a mental health policy is emphasized, as is the need

for this policy to be ìin harmony with the overall health policy of the countryî (p10).

This reinforces the concept of mainstreaming with general health and highlights the

importance of a focus on community-based care.

A range of international processes seeks to support mental health developments such as

the World Health Report (WHO 2001b). There are publications and developments

relating to epidemiology (as above), rehabilitation and guidelines for promotion,

prevention, treatment services and so forth (2004b). The WHO focus has been

strengthened with the recognition of the human and economic costs following the global

burden of disease study with the World Bank (Murray & Lopez 1996).

Clearly defining policy components and their mix should relate to an evidence base of

extent of morbidity/need, resources required to address this need, priorities within it and

structures for monitoring and evaluation of effectiveness. There needs to be a cohesive

framework linking both mental health problems that exist, evidence based ways of

addressing these, and the links to the wide range of other government and non-

government agencies essential to improving the mental health well-being of the

community. Such a policy will provide the basis for a strategic plan for program

implementation, and the monitoring of its implementation and outcomes. Consumers of

services and their families and careers are key stakeholders who should be consulted in

the process of policy development.

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The key elements of a mental health policy thus include the following components:

i. Aims and objectives: these state what the policy hopes to achieve ñ for instance a

reduction in mental health disorders or decrease in impairments associated with

such illnesses. Timelines should be identified.

ii. A statement on leadership, management and clinical governance. This would

deal with who is responsible, how the program would be lead and managed and

how clinical as well as management accountability will be identified in terms of

implementing the policy to achieve the aims set out.

iii. Identified needs within the population, how priorities will be determined, what is

the evidence base or rationale that will inform strategies to address these needs

and achieve the aims.

iv. Care systems that are in place or that will be put in place or changed to enable the

aims to be met. The statement should include recognition of the roles of primary

care, community care, NGOís and others, as well as those providing physical

health care to those with mental illnesses. Specialized mental health services, the

roles of mental health professionals such as psychiatrists, mental health nurses,

clinical psychologists and allied health workers and the systems of care such as

community mental health, inpatient, rehabilitation services need to be described.

Holistic health concepts as are important in many cultures need to be

encompassed, as should roles such as those of traditional leaders. Care for all age

groups should be described.

v. The processes of clinical assessment and provision of effective interventions need

to be defined, as they apply to children and adolescents, adults and older people

as well as requirements for clinical records and documentation.

14
 vi. The spectrum of evidence-based (i.e. scientific) interventions should be identified

including mental health promotion, prevention, early intervention, treatment

rehabilitation and continuing care.

vii. Partnerships with human services and other agencies such as childcare providers,

schools, workplaces, aged care settings, emergency services, police, government

and non-government as well as other relevant groups should be discussed.

viii. Finances, funding and infrastructure requirements need to be systematically

identified as discussed later.

The WHO review of mental health policies across nations shows that there is not

necessarily a national mental health program in association with each of these, and that

frequently there are profound gaps with respect to both epidemiological data and

reporting systems, and specialist mental health professionals to inform and provide care.

PRIMARY CARE AND MENTAL HEALTH

Primary mental health care is seen as the cornerstone of provision in both developing and

developed countries. Primary care includes approaches such as community action and

empowerment, social process, sociopolitical contexts and a broader biopsychosocial

paradigm. It emphasizes the health of the population served as well as the individual.

Primary care is usually provided in culturally appropriate ways, often with indigenous

healers, and may be the only form of mental health care in developing countries.

Holistic, primary health care models that are responsive to local needs form the basis for

care. Such models may encompass the trauma, loss and dislocation associated with

colonization. They also require self-determination and indigenous, traditional and

15
spiritual understanding for healing (Swan & Raphael 1995). They often continue, even if

covertly, through conflict and complex emergencies. Enhancing and strengthening

mental health capacity to deal with post conflict psychological damage requires

respectful consultation and engagement to support these strengths.

SPECIALIST MENTAL HEALTH CARE

This involves many levels of care but is frequently focused on those with ìserious mental

illnessî or psychosis. Many services are institutionally based. The full spectrum of

community care, general hospital inpatient services, other mainstreamed specialist

treatment programs provided by mental health professionals, and components such as

child and adolescent mental health services, forensic services and so forth may be very

limited, with few other expert workers available to provide such care.

RESOURCES / INFRASTRUCTURE: TO TRANSLATE POLICIES TO

EFFECTIVE PROGRAMS

The WHO Atlas surveying policies and programs worldwide also identifies the resources

in terms of broad budget levels, as a percentage of the health budget of countries (WHO

2001a). This report indicated 36.3% of those countries surveyed spent less than 1% of

their health budget on mental health, covering more than 2 billion people. It is also clear

that less is spent in many of the developing regions, and certainly in those subject to

conflict. Indeed in some there is no specified budget for mental health.

Policy and programs require such financial resources to provide for the infrastructure and

systems to deliver care, to fund human resources, facilities, psychotropic medication and

other necessities for effective assessment and treatment. Without adequate financial

16
commitment a policy, regardless of its quality, cannot be effective. A strong fund model

is necessary to provide basis for resource allocation.

Human resources in terms of the expertise to support primary care and provide

specialized mental health services are frequently limited. They require workforce

development, education and training. Funding is necessary to support such programs.

The WHO Atlas survey reported for instance, that the overall numbers of mental health

nurses in many developing countries was less than one per hundred thousand population-

clearly inadequate as these are core professionals. Nearly 70% of the worldís population

has less than one psychiatrist per hundred thousand. Both these figures highlight the vital

role of primary care and the need to ensure education and training as well as support for

these mental health providers.

Information gathering systems are another key infrastructure. These are essential for

epidemiological data, service provision data and reporting on mental health care. While

described as present in general reporting of mental health in over 70% of countries, far

fewer data systems exist for epidemiological data and for quantifying service provision

and its outcomes. Evaluation is another big component.

In summary critical infrastructure includes:

i. Financial resources proportional to need and priorities, funding models and cost

effective and efficient services delivery models, capital and other infrastructure

funding streams, as well as research and development.

17
 ii. Workforce to deal with priority mental health needs, and the processes to support

workforce development planning, recruitment, retention, and education and

training to build skills and expertise.

iii. Information systems to provide data on need, clients, activities, outcomes and

evaluation cycles.

PROGRAMS FOR IMPLEMENTATION

Mental health programs at a national level are variable. The WHO Atlas report defines a

national mental health program as ìa national plan of action that includes the broad and

specific lines of action required in all sectors involved to give effect to the policyî.

These are to achieve the policy objectives, by indicating what has to be done, why, who

has to do it, in what time frame and with what resources.

The survey found that 69.7% of countries, covering more than 92.8% of the worldís

population had such national mental health programs; with the majority having some

form of community-based mental health care, which was seen as being appropriate for

those chronically affected by mental illnesses. The need to increase the availability of

such community-based care was emphasized, particularly for countries where existing

services were grossly inadequate.

Further dissection of available programs showed that these variously covered minority

groups, refugees, indigenous peoples and more frequently dealt with populations of

children (59.9%) and the elderly (47.8%). Disaster affected populations were covered in

37.2% of programs according to these reports.

18
POLICIES & PROGRAMS FOR MENTAL HEALTH IMPACT OF CONFLICTS,
COMPLEX EMERGENCIES, DISASTERS & TERRORISM

While some general mental health policies and programs encompass these issues, either

in clinical services responding to individuals or with broader initiatives directed

specifically to affected populations, they are critical in terms of the communityís capacity

to recover, and to utilize the opportunities for development.

In developing countries subject to complex emergencies there may be specific risks to

survival for those with pre-existing profound and disabling mental illnesses. So

programs put in place must not only address emergency mental health issues that result

from the conflict, but also provide for the care of those with existing mental illnesses.

Sometimes the provision of mental health programs in response to the emergency may

drive the further development of more broadly based mental health policies and care.

The World Health Organization has provided specific policy guidelines to inform

response in such settings (Mental Health in Emergencies 2003; Mental Health of

Populations Exposed to Biological and Chemical weapons 2004a), as have other

agencies, for instance for early response to mass violence (NIMH 2002).

Key components of mental health programs that should be embedded in post

conflict/emergency health and recovery programs include: provision of psychological

first aid and triage in the emergency; provision of acute mental health care for those at

high risk or with high priority need - such as the traumatized, dislocated and bereaved;

mental health care alongside physical care for those injured; provision and care for those

chronically mentally disabled; and community programs to facilitate recovery from the

19
psychiatric impacts of trauma, grief and dislocation. Rehabilitation programs will also be

critical, including those for child soldiers. Models should be built through primary care

development and capacity building for local providers such as described by Gupta for

children following the Rwanda genocide, or community education programs about

coping with trauma (Gupta 1999).

It is critical that such programs are developed in partnership with local communities, are

culturally attuned and not super-imposed in western models of traumatology.

Furthermore they should be planned with intent of early handover to a longer term

management by local communities.

The critical role of effective interventions for this type of morbidity is identified for

Colletta and Cullen (2000) in their report on lessons from Cambodia, Rwanda,

Guatemala, and Somalia. These case studies highlight the importance of mobilizing

communities in their own active recovery and renewal/development processes, while at

the same time making available community-based mental health interventions that can

impact on vulnerabilities and morbidity to lessen disability and other adverse outcomes.

The requirements for mental health programs to deal with conflicts, complex

emergencies, disasters and terrorism include:

i. Identifying extent and level of need and best available evidence of effective

strategies to address these specific needs. Exposure to multiple deaths,

dislocation and destruction, as well as ongoing threat indicate potential for mental

health impact alongside the gross need for essential physical resources such as

food, safety, shelter, treatment of injury.

20
 ii. Programs developed in partnership with communities including Psychological

First Aid, trauma and grief programs for those at higher risk, population based

programs for instance with schools and communities and special programs to deal

with human rights abuse impacts.

iii. A focus on capacity building within communities and in terms of policy and

programs for mental health.

MENTAL HEALTH LEGISLATION

The World Health Organization has also surveyed mental health legislation across the

world. It defines mental health legislation as: ìlegal provisions for the protection of basic

human and civil rights of people with mental disordersî. It includes provisions such as

restraint, regulation of compulsory treatment, protection of the rights, appeals and so

forth. Most legislation encompasses the capacity for containment to ensure the

protection of the individual from himself (preventive of self harm and suicide) and

protection of others who may be at risk of harm from him because of the impacts of

mental illness.

Other legislation is also relevant for people who may be mentally ill ñ for instance

protection from discrimination, e.g., equitable access to disability benefits, community

resources and treatment.

Mental health legislation has been reviewed many times and an instrument developed in

Australia identifies the key elements of ìidealî mental health legislation (University of

Newcastle 1994). This incorporates the U.N. Principles for the Protection of Persons with

Mental Illness and for the Provision of Mental Health Care (1991), and the National

21
Statement of Rights and Responsibilities (1991) developed for the National Mental

Health Policy in Australia. Key elements cover principles and objectives; definitions and

fundamental concepts; voluntary admission to a mental health facility; involuntary

admission; emergency admission; review of involuntary admission; authorisation of

treatment; regulation of specific forms of treatment; involuntary treatment in the

community; forensic patients; patients rights and complaints mechanisms; and other

administrative and review functions.

On the other hand the World Health Organization (1996) has described ten basic

principles of mental health care law, which include service provision components. These

provide a useful framework through which core mental health legislation can be

developed. This report also recognises needs for legislative provisions in other sectors

such as housing, employment, social security, education, child protection, drugs and

alcohol, and others. The ten principles overlap to a degree with standards for care. They

include substantive provisions such as the principle of least restrictive care;

confidentiality; informed consent; voluntary and involuntary admission; voluntary and

involuntary treatment; independent review; competency and guardianship.

The Ten Basic Principles of Mental Health Care Law are as follows:

1. Promotion of Mental health & Prevention of Mental Disorders

2. Access to Basic Mental Health Care

3. Mental Health Assessments in Accordance with Internationally accepted

Principles.

4. Provision of Least Restrictive Type of Mental Health Care

22
 5. Self Determination

6. Right to be Assisted in Self Determination

7. Availability of Review Procedure

8. Automatic Periodical Review Mechanism

9. Qualified Decision Maker

10. Respect, e.g., the Rule of Law.

How provisions deal with both the need for basic mental health laws, and the need for

legislation to address human rights abuses and other consequences conflict and complex

emergencies is an evolving field.

While the detailed consideration of these issues will inform debate, some developing

countries, including those where there has been substantial conflict, may not have

specific mental health laws, or health laws which include relevant mental health

requirements (WHO 2001a). Mental Health Care law according to this report can be

found in 75.3% of countries covering 65.8% of the worldís population.

The majority of countries have some form of disability benefit. These may be very

limited in provisions and less beneficial than for physical disabilities.

Special legal provision does not appear to cover disaster or conflict affected populations,

where specific requirements for such programs could be identified, as well as for

humanitarian aid.

23
A recent review publication has examined mental health legislation and policies and

human rights across a number of developed and developing nations (Morrall & Hazelton

2004). These authors consider particularly the relevant issues for human rights and their

violations. They also note that stigma and discrimination remain very significant themes

and that even in many developed countries with policy and legislation, there is

inadequate redress. In addition they report that financial issues such as funding systems

and levels may lead to inequities as in the USA. Or lack of government commitment

with inadequate health funding generally and low priority for mental health may make it

impossible to provide necessary levels of care, even with legislation and policy in place.

In such circumstance both policy and legislation may require government commitment to

an identified baseline which should enable efficient and effective focus, for instance for

those with highest risk and highest need. Then there may be a balance in legislation

between law and order with a greater emphasis on containment, vis a vis human rights

and civil liberties. Political use of psychiatry and mental health interventions and

containment may not be regulated against to a degree that can protect citizens from a

determination that their beliefs reflect mental illnesses requiring containment and

treatment, or that they reflect ìevilî, requiring punishment.

A clear example of mental health issues in a post war society, Mozambique, is provided

by Igrega in Morrall & Hazelton (2004). It is reported that the impacts of colonialization,

internal armed conflicts, corruption, poverty and failed policies meant that only

privileged urban members of the community could receive mental health care while those

in rural and disadvantaged areas relied on family groups, traditional and religious healers.

24
It is on such an inadequate base that special programs to address the psychosocial

suffering of trauma survivors were provided.

Even as health systems developed, mental health was not given a priority in this. The

first national mental health program only evolved in 1996. This specifically included

substance abuse, epilepsy, infant disorders, chronic mental illnesses and psychosocial

effects of war and other catastrophes. This also recognized the roles of traditional

healers. There is a very active advocacy and non-government sector.

While a national epidemiological survey had not been available as the basis for the

overall mental health program, such a study was conducted in one of the former war

zones, assessing the effects on mental and physical health (Igrega in Morrell & Hazelton

2004). While a high degree of post-traumatic reactions correlated with high levels of

exposure to war and drought stressors, there were concerns about the appropriateness of

western measures of mental health impact and their cultural relevance. The authors also

indicated that high levels of psychological distress might not be able to be evaluated

independently of disruption of social, family, community culture and political systems.

Concepts of psychological trauma, for instance are frequently criticized for their cultural

relevance and validity. The agricultural cycle was also seen as important, as were the

disruptions of social and political systems.

In conclusion, the authors emphasised that both the lack of cultural understanding and the

contributions of traditional healers to addressing trauma related mental health impacts as

well as in mental health more broadly, were key issues. As they conclude: ìlack of

25
financial resources and culturally sensitive knowledge represents the main stumbling

block in the provision of more humane and decent careî. (p180, Igrega in Morrell &

Hazelton 2004).

RESEARCH AND MENTAL HEALTH DEVELOPMENT

Research is critical in terms of supporting mental health policy and program

development, and in terms of evaluating the degree to which needs are met. It is also

essential in terms of assessing the mental health impacts of social processes from

development to conflict and traumatization; from environmental and climate change to

resilience, adaptive and survival strategies.

Some research priorities include:

i. Development of basic mental health need assessment and monitoring tools

relevant at primary care levels that can be widely used and are relevant and

acceptable across cultural settings.

ii. Examining models relevant to psychological traumatization, adaptations and

outcomes in different cultural and social settings.

iii. Time and change processes analyses of the impacts and outcomes of mental

health policy and program implementation, including the core elements that are

likely to drive effective processes in terms of achieving outcomes aligned with

policy aims.

iv. Children, young people, families should be assessed to examine mental health

issues with this population, as well as impacts of trauma. Prevention and early

intervention programs and impacts, particularly in relation to education access

and development are relevant.

26
 v. Development of data for mental health impact statements, looking at relationships

of factors such as levels of conflict, social disruption, status of women and so

forth.

CONCLUSIONS

Mental Health policies and programs are critical components of health care in all

societies. The advancement of mental health in developing and developed countries will

rely on a real and lasting commitment to these in terms of leadership, financial resources

and equity. Such policies can help to address this great area of unmet need. Conflict,

complex emergencies, disaster and terrorism will further adversely affect mental health

so that policy and program response, beginning with the strengths of primary care, must

also be ready to meet these further needs, building hopefully for the future.

27
REFERENCES

1. Colletta NJ, Cullen ML. Violent conflict and the transformation of social capital.
The World Bank, Washington DC, 2000.

2. Gupta L. Bereavement recovery following the Rwandan genocide: A community

based assessment for child survivors. Bereavement Care. 1999; 18, 3: 40-42.

3. Morrall P, Hazelton M. Mental health: Global policies and human rights. Whurr,
London, 2004.

4. Murray CJ, Lopez AD. The Global Burden of Disease: A comprehensive

assessment of mortality and disability from disease, injuries and risk factors in
1990 and projected to 2020. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1996.

5. National Institute of Mental Health. Mental Health and Mass Violence: Evidence-
based early psychological intervention for victims/survivors of mass violence. A
workshop to reach consensus on best practices. U.S. Government Printing Office,
Washington DC, 2001. Available:
http://www.nimh.nih.gov/research/massviolence.pdf

6. New South Wales (NSW) Health Department. Mental Health Clinical Care &
Prevention Model (MH-CCP), 2000.

7. http://www.mhcs.health.nsw.gov.au/policy/cmh/publications/mh-ccp-v1-11.pdf

8. Raphael B. A population health model for the provision of mental health care.
Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra, 2000.

9. Silove D. The psychosocial effects of torture, mass human rights violations and
refugee trauma: Toward an integrated conceptual framework. Journal of Nervous
and Mental Disease, 1999, 187: 200-201.

10. Swan P, Raphael B. Ways Forward: National consultancy report on Aboriginal

and Torres Strait Islander Mental Health. AGPS, Canberra, 1995.

11. University of Newcastle. Report to the Australian Health Ministersí Advisory

Council National Working Group on Mental Health Policy: Model Mental Health
Legislation. Volume 1. Commonwealth Department of Health and Human
Services, Canberra, 1994.

12. WHO. Mental Health Care Law: Ten Basic Principles. World Health
Organisation, Geneva, 1996.

13. WHO. Atlas: Mental health resources in the world 2001. Geneva, World Health
Organization, Geneva, 2001a.

28
14. WHO World health report 2001. Mental Health: New understanding, new hope.
World Health Organisation, Geneva, 2001b.

15. WHO. Mental Health in emergencies: Mental and social aspects of health of
populations exposed to extreme stressors. World Health Organisation, Geneva,
2003.

16. WHO Kessler R. Prevalence, severity, and unmet need for treatment of mental
disorders in the World Health Organization World Mental Health Surveys. The
WHO World Mental Health Consortium. JAMA, 2004; 291: 2581-2590.

17. WHO. Mental health of populations exposed to biological and chemical weapons.
(Prepublication version). WHO, Geneva, 2004a.

18. WHO. Promoting mental health: Concepts, emerging evidence, practice:

Summary report. World Health Organisation, Geneva, 2004b.

29
 CHAPTER 2

FUNDING MENTAL HEALTH IN POST-CONFLICT COUNTRIES

Nedim Jaganjac, MD, MPh

ABSTRACT

As mental health in post conflict countries as a quasi-public good has significant

externalities, early interventions aiming to reduce post traumatic consequences should be
eligible for public financing. A nationís ability to use any modality for financing mental
health care effectively depends on its infrastructure and competency in public and private
management. Mental health in post conflict is not only a medical problem as it affects a
countryís ability to economically recover. Early posttraumatic interventions that target
anxiety and depressive symptoms identified by mental health practitioners can be helpful
only if they there are preconditions for healing.

WIDESPREAD PSYCHOLOGICAL TRAUMA IS A REAL PROBLEM FOR

DEVELOPMENT

By all standards most authors agree that mental health is a major economic factor

affecting the development of conflict/post-conflict societies and post-natural disaster

societies. In 1990, the World Bank/WHO Global Burden Disease Study (GBD) revealed

for the first time in developing nations the importance of depression. GBD found in its

original survey that depression was the fourth leading cause of disability as compared to

all other health conditions. The article in Scientific American (v.28, June 2000: 54-57)

by Professor Mollica of Harvard reveals the scientific basis of an historic shift in

conflict/post-conflict societies away from solely considering the mental health care of the

seriously mentally ill (which represent a small percentage of affected individuals) to a

concern for the overall mental health status of the general population.

30
The estimates of prevalence of psychological trauma in post-conflict situations vary,

though the survey results show consistently high figures. According to Conservation of

Resources (COR)1 theory, it is expected that the prevalence of post-traumatic

psychological trauma is extremely high in post-conflict and disaster situations, and in fact

almost the entire population may be affected. Recent large-scale epidemiological surveys

have shown that in traumatized populations, depression can be up to seven-fold the

baseline level in non-traumatized societies; post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) can be

up to ten-fold the baseline. The absence of a clear and widely accepted policy on early

interventions for post-conflict and disaster situations makes it difficult to provide good

reference on what sources of funds to use in order to address mental health problems.

MEDICAL INTERVENTIONS ALONE, OF THE SORT VERTICAL

PROGRAMS, ARE LIKELY TO BE INEFFECTIVE, AND NOT FINANCIALLY
SUSTAINABLE.

As the objectives of financing of early interventions for mental health in post-conflict

situations are to reduce stress and prevent the development of serious chronic

psychological trauma of population and its consequences in terms of loss of productivity,

mental health should not be seen only as a medical problem, particularly given the

overwhelming evidence that most of the factors that contribute to healing processes in

post-conflict situation are outside classical medical interventions. Most up-to-date

literature dealing with mental health financing is limited to funding strictly for the most

commonly used medical interventions, such as psychological debriefing (PD) and the

early provision of cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT). Certainly, provision of these

interventions in post-conflict or disaster situations proves to be logistically difficult to

1
The Conservation of Resources (COR) theory is based on the premise that people strive to obtain and
protect resources (Hobfoll, 1989). These resources can include material goods, life conditions (e.g.,
marriage or occupation), or personal resources (e.g., self-esteem or perceptions of competency). According
to COR theory, stress ensues when there is a threatened or actual loss of resources.

31
implement. Furthermore, new researchers argue that these interventions are even

harmful in most cases2. To date, early interventions have not sufficiently taken into

account the social factors in the recovery environment that promote or hinder recovery

from trauma. An individualís recovery from trauma is facilitated by the availability of

positive social supports3.

Often, mental health is seen as a vertical program rather than part of the overall system,

doctor-patient relationship, part of community health work and a proxy for health care

quality. Although having a budgetary line item for mental health might be useful for

national policy development and some national public health interventions, it might not

be a good idea to have budget line item for mental health that separates all mental health

activities from other primary health care activities. Instead, it seems that policies that

have integrated mental health into the daily routine of primary health care workers have

produced the best results. Incentives built into payment mechanisms to address mental

health of population deserve special attention, as there is often reluctance on the part of

primary health care providers to deal with mental health.

Decentralization is also one of the trends in reforming the public sector in todayís post-

conflict countries. Although decentralization might have many advantages in terms of

efficiency of collection and management of public resources, it also might create many

difficulties if implemented prematurely without developing adequate skills, and without

carefully planned devolution of authority and responsibilities. On the other hand, the

2
A National Center for PTSD Fact Sheet by Brett Litz and Matt Gray, National Center for PTSD, Richard
Bryant, University of New South Wales, & Amy Adler, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research
3
Forbes & Roger, 1999; Foy, Sipprelle, Rueger, & Carroll, 1984; Harvey, Orbuch, Chwalisz, & Garwood,
1991; Keane, Scott, Chavoya, Lamparski, & Fairbank, 1985; King, King, Fairbank, Keane, & Adams,
1998; Martin, Rosen, Durand, Knudson, & Stretch, 2000; Pennebaker & OíHeeron, 1984

32
 hierarchical systems of central planning could limit the ability of providers to react to

both developments in the field as well as environmental challenges4.

LOTS OF ATTENTION NEEDS TO BE FOCUSED ON IMPROVING

OBJECTIVE REALITY AND SAFETY, OTHERWISE MEDICAL THERAPY IS
NOT GOING TO WORK

In many countries in the world, mental health services are poorly resourced. Inadequate

funding for mental health is largely due to the historical legacy where mental health care

is not considered to be a high resource priority in health system funding. Among the

many other factors that contribute to low funding are: poor economic conditions in the

countries concerned; inadequate recognition of mental health problems and their

consequences; unwillingness or inability of individuals

with mental health problems (or their families) to pay

for treatment; and failure by policy-makers to

understand what can be done to prevent or treat mental

disorders, resulting in a belief that funding for other

services is more beneficial to society5. The World

Health Report of 2001 dedicated to mental health only

briefly discusses the issue of mental health in post-

Creating sense of normality:
Cleaning the rubble and fixing facades of buildings conflict situations. Only few studies discuss incentives
in Sarajevo
for primary health care providers to deal with mental

4
Tomov T (2001) mental health reforms in Eastern Europe. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, Vol.
104(410):21-26.
5
World Health Organization 2003 Mental Health Policy and Service Guidance Package

33
health. Moreover, there are few mental health economics studies in psychiatry for the

region6. The subsequent lack of adequate economic evaluations of resource allocation

may hamper the cost-effective use of the few mental health resources that are available.

In the case of post-conflict and natural disasters, victims often lose their homes, money,

and social network. The inability of countries in post-conflict situations to organize a

speedy recovery and to resolve these underlining causes of stress further contributes to

the prolongation of the conditions that lead to the development of psychological trauma.

The LSMS survey conducted in Bosnia eight years after the end of conflict still shows

very high prevalence rates of depression and anxiety among the population7. Similar

results are obtained from several, smaller scale studies in other countries. Resolution of

the most pressing needs to resolve legitimate concerns of the trauma survivors about

physical well-being, safety, shelter, or significant financial problems is a necessary

precondition to an individualís capacity to benefit from early interventions addressing

psychological variables following trauma. Therefore, Hobffoll et al. (1995) argue that

early posttraumatic interventions that target anxiety and depressive symptoms employed

by psychologists have not been especially helpful, because they attend exclusively to

psychological variables and not other domains of resource loss.

In order to attempt to achieve the objective of adequately financing mental health, we

therefore argue that at an early stage in post conflict, much attention has to be paid to

creating the preconditions for healing to start and to minimize the effects of prolonged

6
Shah A (2000) The state of mental health economics in the countries of Central and Eastern Europe and
Central Asia. Eurohealth, Vol. 6(2). Special Issue. Spring:61-62.
7
World Bank Internal report - Scott at all. 2003

34
stress. This includes activities that would address personal security issues, housing, job

creation, restoring administrative functions, the establishment of a functioning education

and health system, and in general the creation of a sense of normality in the country in

post conflict-countries. Although these arguments shift much of the attention to mental

health outside the health sector, there is a role for medical interventions in post-conflict

situations, as is described in other chapters of this book. Once again we must repeat that

disagreements over what these interventions are, present the major obstacle in

determining the most efficient ways to finance and allocate very scarce resources in post-

conflict situations.

Post-conflict situations also present opportunities for change, and much attention should

be paid to these changes that would lead to less traumatic situations than was the case

before the conflict. The introduction of active learning instead of ex-cathedra lecturing in

the education system, or the establishment of community-based rehabilitation centers

instead of redevelopment of large mental health institutions in many post-conflict

countries represent good examples of such practices.

PROGRAMS THAT CAN BE SUSTAINED NEED TO BE COMMUNITY BASED

AND/OR INTEGRATED INTO A REFORMED PRIMARY HEALTH CARE
SYSTEM.

Opportunities for improving the ability of the health system to respond to mental health

problems of the population are numerous. They range from funding for medical

education and retraining of primary care providers, development of a family medicine

model, public health education on mental health issues, support for peer groups, to

screening of susceptible individuals and many more. Those activities might have the

35
highest rate of return and could be an integrated part of the overall efforts to reform the

health care system. However, ìverticalizationî and ìmedicalizationî of mental health

care present a constant threat for effective implementation of mental health programs and

the development of a sound and financially sustainable mental health policy.

In developed countries the process of deinstitutionalization during the last three decades

has led to reductions in the populations of mental hospitals and to the closure of many of

these institutions. However, this has not been accompanied by sufficient provision of

community-based services, which are often inadequate and unevenly distributed.8

THERE ARE LOTS OF REASONS WHY PROVISION OF MENTAL HEALTH

SERVICES NEED PUBLIC FINANCING AND CANNOT BE LEFT TO THE
MARKET.

According to the traditional position of most researchers, and strictly in economic terms,

mental health is not a public good. In post-conflict situations, however, where the

majority of the population is affected by psychological trauma resulting in significant

increases in domestic violence, crime rates, substance abuse and major work disability,

we argue that mental health does in fact have significant externalities and therefore is a

quasi-public good eligible for public financing.

Individuals with depression often are not willing to pay for their treatment, and often do

not seek treatment even if it is free of charge. This means that introducing a market-

based model for mental health would in fact not be an effective way to address the needs

of the population. Co-payments often introduced in post conflict countries in the attempt

8
Organization Of Services For Mental Health; World Health Organization, 2003

36
to either reduce overuse of services or to increase revenues could further discourage

patients to seek help in the primary care.

It is really not well documented if the poor are disproportionately more affected than the

rich by mental health problems in post-conflict situation, but based on COR theory it is

most likely that the poor will have much harder time to recover in post-conflict situations

than the rich. Although in general post-traumatic mental health problems do not inflict

catastrophic costs for medical treatment, disability caused by depression, high rates of

disability and premature death associated with chronic medical illnesses such as

cardiovascular disease, increases in substance abuse, and increases in crime rates

associated with psychiatric morbidity in traumatized populations, all can lead to poverty

and significantly reduce the ability of individuals to recover and leave the vicious cycle

of poverty.

PUBLIC FINANCING FOR MEDICAL INTERVENTIONS

Countries that have relatively stable political conditions with good governance differ

from those that have experienced years of political terror and instability on how the

problems of health sector and mental health are defined, and the kinds of solutions that

are most likely to work. Post-conflict nations, on average, have their economies unstable

and crippled compared to pre-war levels with a much higher percentage of their

economic activities falling into the category of the shadow economy, making it very

difficult to collect taxes or social insurance contributions. This makes health resources

very scarce, raising concerns over equity in access, particularly with an expanding

unregulated private sector and increasing corruption. Therefore, there are arguments that

37
financing for mental health should come from general government revenues, as they are

more an equitable source of financing, rather than from social insurance schemes, where

there is a threat that the uninsured might be left out. On the other hand, there are

arguments that social insurance schemes should also cover mental health activities for the

insured. These arguments go back to discussions and continuous disagreements about

mental health as a quasi-public good.

In light of rather implicit recognition of the importance of mental health during the last

decade, there was also an increase in donor funding for mental health activities in post-

conflict countries. Usually, funding for these activities was through non-governmental

organizations (NGOs) targeting specific groups or specific interventions. However, there

are disagreements with regard to the effectiveness and overall outcomes of these

programs and interventions. Absence of sound policies on mental health coupled with

weak government institutions often result in these programs being implemented without

strategic and overall guidance. Further more, implementation of these programs

managed outside the public sector draw human resources away from the typically lower

paid public sector and further weaken public institutions.

Years after the conflict ends, funding usually moves away from external donors and

becomes increasingly dependent on local sources, either government-based through state

budgets or health insurance sources, or from the private sector, through growing numbers

of local foundations and charities. However, the high level of co-payments paid directly

by patients for medical services, including mental health care, seems likely to continue.

Moreover, the downward pressure on state funding for mental health care and the

decentralization of mental health financing (e.g. insurance funds on the municipal

38
government level) may threaten both the availability of resources in the long-term and

the delivery of care9.

Although there is value in developing partnerships with the non-governmental sector,

vertical mental health programs often implemented in post-conflict situations, instead of

being designed and developed along with other major reform efforts are frequently

difficult to sustain. Too often, those who are implementing mental health projects are

neither aware of nor skillful in understanding the broader context of reform processes

that might have significant implications for the delivery of mental health services in

primary health care settings.

CONCLUSION

A nationís ability to use any modality for financing mental health care effectively

depends on its infrastructure and competency in public and private management.

Institutional capacity to collect taxes and to efficiently allocate resources in post-conflict

situations is usually diminished and even exacerbated given the increased needs and

scarcity of both human and financial resources. Therefore, in selecting both sources of

funding as well as what interventions to finance, it is essential to be selective and to take

into consideration the countryís overall implementation capacity.

9
Balicki M, Leder S, Piotrowski, A (2000) focus on psychiatry in Poland: Past and Present. British Journal
of Psychiatry, Vol. 177:375-81.

39
 CHAPTER 3

SCIENTIFIC OVERVIEW OF THE ROLE OF

MENTAL HEALTH IN COMPLEX EMERGENCIES*

Richard F. Mollica, MD, MAR, Barbara Lopez Cardozo, MD, MPh,

Howard Osofsky, MD, PhD, Beverley Raphael, AM, MBBS, MD, FRANZCP,
FASSA, FRCPsych, Hon. MD, Alastair Ager, BA, MSc, PhD, AFBPsS,
Peter Salama, MBBS, MPH, and Laura McDonald, MALD

ABSTRACT

The role of mental health in complex emergencies (CEs) is emerging from its scientific
infancy to become a core public health response. This review presents a culturally valid
mental health action plan based on existing scientific knowledge capable of addressing
the mental health impact of CEs. Coordination of the action planís components can lead
to the proper utilization of effective evidence-based interventions. The de facto mental
health system of primary care providers, traditional healers, and relief workers, if
properly trained and supported, can provide cost-effective quality mental health care.
This plan emphasizes the need for standardized approaches to the assessment, monitoring
and outcome evaluation of all related activities. Critical to the improvement of outcomes
during the crisis and the availability of lessons learned to future CEs is the on-going
dissemination of plan results. A research agenda is included that will fill knowledge gaps
and reduce, until additional CE research is forthcoming, the mental health impact of CEs,
and will guide interventions, and maximize utilization of resources.

* This paper will be published in The Lancet on December 4, 2004.

40
INTRODUCTION

Mental health is becoming a core public health response in CEs.i Many historic

milestones have contributed to this situation.ii Initially, studies on veterans of war

revealed the serious mental health toll of conflict.iii It was found that psychological

casualties exceeded physical casualties by two to one in World War I, and that 33% of all

medical casualties were due to psychiatric causes in World War II. Research on U.S.

Vietnam Era veterans has revealed that ten years after the war, 15% were still affected by

PTSD.iv These findings eventually came to be applied to war-affected civilian

populations.

In the late 1980s, the humanitarian relief community acknowledged the mental health

crisis in their relief effort to more than 300,000 Cambodian displaced persons living on

the Thai-Cambodian border for over a decade following the Khmer Rouge genocide

(1975-1979). Deteriorating social conditions among camp residents led to a landmark

meeting in July 1988 of UN, Thai and voluntary relief organizations to discuss the

deteriorating mental health conditions in the camps.v

The first on-site refugee mental health survey was conducted in the largest Thai border

camp, Site 2, in 1988vi, followed by the UNís acceptance of a mental health plan to

relieve the mental health crisis. vii The next mental health milestone was initiated by the

humanitarian relief community during the Balkan conflict where hundreds of

psychosocial programs were implemented.viii

An urgent need exists for the elucidation of culturally competent evidence-based mental

health practices for CEs. This review meets this demand by offering a mental health

41
action plan and an agenda for future research.

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

CEs are a social catastrophe of affected populations marked by the destruction of their

political, economic, socio-cultural and healthcare infrastructure.ix Figure 1 illustrates the

linkages between mass violence, mental health impairment and services and the existing

damage to economic development, social capital, and human rights. While these macro-

level forces create health and mental health impairments and barriers to mental health

service delivery they can also be mobilized to foster resiliency and mental health

recovery.

Economic destruction that characterizes CEs is associated with the physical destruction

of businesses and hospitals, and the displacement of populations to camps where work

opportunities are limited. The inability of traumatized populations to be economically

self-sufficient has a major impact on their psychological well-being.x Social capital, the

ìfeatures of social organization, such as trust, norms (or reciprocity), and networks (of

civil engagement), that can improve the efficiency of society by facilitating coordinated

actionsîxi xii is greatly damaged in a CE.

Restoring social capital, reducing hatred and revenge are at the core of post-conflict

reconciliation.xiii A World Bank report states:xiv ìThe easy part of any Bank operation is

reconstructing the bricks and mortar; the hard ñ but more essential ñ part is restoring the

institutional societal bases of post conflict society.î Evidence is emerging that links the

mental health sequelae of mass violence to the destruction of social capital.(Reference 2)

Cullen and Coletta have put forth case studies illustrating how the rebuilding of social

42
capital can provide a framework for recovery and economic development. xv

Research documents the serious human rights violations that occur in CEs. xvi xvii xviii xix xx

Gender-based violence is common during CEs and has potent mental health effects.xxi

Evidence has been forthcoming as to the dose-effect relationship between cumulative

trauma and psychiatric morbidity.xxii

The primary objective of a mental health action plan, therefore, is to address the domains

of human suffering associated with health and mental health from the perspective of
xxiii xxiv
patient, community and provider. Herein, mental health symptoms, which are

signs of emotional distress, must be distinguished from psychiatric illnesses and

disabilities.xxv xxvi xxvii xxviii In resource-poor environments such as CEs, characterized by

high levels of emotional distress, thresholds must be set for defining those individuals in

need of mental health services. Emotional distress combined with impairment in social

and physical functioning creates a reasonable clinical standard for eligibility for clinical

care. Input from the local community is necessary for determining the cultural norms

needed for establishing these clinical standards.

Figure 1. Conceptual framework for mental health action plan for CEs

ECONOMIC
DEVELOPMENT
SOCIAL CAPITAL
HUMAN RIGHTS

Health & Mental Health

Services

Mass Violence

Health & Mental

Health Impairment

ACTION PLAN

43
MAGNITUDE OF THE PROBLEM
xxix
The landmark Global Burden of Disease study established for the first time the

significant burden of mortality and disability associated with mental illnesses.

Depression, the fourth leading cause of disease burden in 1990, is predicted to move to

second place in 2020. Of the ten leading causes of disability worldwide, five were

psychiatric conditions. Since this study did not focus on traumatized populations, it is

estimated that the mental health effects of psychiatric disorders are much higher in CEs.

Despite methodological challenges in determining the prevalence of mental illness across

cultures and in insecure environments, recent progress has been made in assessing the

psychological and social impact of CEs. Indeed, the lack of accurate population

estimates and culturally validated screening instruments had to be overcome to make

culturally valid mental health assessments.xxx xxxi

Validated measures for assessing

economic and social productivity and social capital in CEs, however, are still needed.

Numerous recent studies that underscore the severe mental health sequelae resulting from

mass violence in various contexts are summarized in Table 1.

A longitudinal study of Bosnian refugees (1996) revealed for the first time, the serious

disability associated with the mental health effects of mass violence. While 45% of those

studied met DSM-IV criteria for depression, PTSD, or both, co-morbidity for these

disorders was associated with high rates of physical disability (i.e. 25%).xxxii In 1999,

this population revealed unremitting psychiatric disability and premature death in the

elderly. xxxiii Other studies support these results, suggesting that suffering continues long

after the crisis has ended.xxxiv xxxv

44
Table 1: Prevalence of Mental Health Disorders among Adult Populations Affected by CEs

Non-specific
STUDY PTSD Depression psychiatric Screening Source
morbidity Tool
CE Population
Cambodian refugees in Point 37.2% Point 67.9% N/A HTQ Mollica et al.
Thailand HSCL-25 (1993)xxxvi
Bosnian refugees in Croatia Point 26% Point 39% N/A HTQ Mollica et al.
HSCL-25 (1999)xxxvii
Kosovar Albanians in Point 17.1% N/A 43% (11 mean HTQ Lopes Cardozo et al.
Kosovo score) GHQ-28 (2000)xxxviii
Serbian minority in Kosovo (12.8 mean GHQ-28 Salama et al.
score) (2000)xxxix
Rwandan Refugees in N/A N/A 50% GHQ-28 De Jong et al.xl
Tanzania (14 mean score)
Karenni (Burmese) refugees Point 4.6% Point 41.8% N/A GHQ-28 Lopes Cardozo et al.
in Thailand HSCL-25 (2004)xli
HTQ (Repeat of Reference
SF-36 13)
Cambodia Lifetime: 28.4% N/A N/A LESHQ De Jong et al.xlii
CIDI
Algeria Lifetime: 37.4% N/A N/A LESHQ De Jong et al. 42
CIDI
Ethiopia Lifetime: 15.8% N/A N/A LESHQ De Jong et al. 42
CIDI
Gaza Lifetime: 17.8% N/A N/A LESHQ De Jong et al. 42
CIDI
Baseline Population
US Population Lifetime: 1% 12-month 3.7% N/A DIS ECA Study
xliii
Lifetime 6.4 % Depression:
Robins et al. (1991)
xliv
PTSD: Helzer et
al. (1987)
U.S. Population Lifetime: 7.8% 12 month: 6.6% CIDI NCS, Depression
xlv
Lifetime: 16.2% (modified) (Kessler et al.
(2003)
NCS, PTSDxlvi
(Kessler et al. (1995))
15 Developing countries N/A N/A 2-6 (mean GHQ-12 Goldberg et al.
score) (1997)xlvii
(Repeat of Reference
31)
Harvard Trauma Questionnaire (HTQ); Hopkins Symptom Checklist ñ 25 (HSCL-25); General Health
Questionnaire (GHQ); Epidemiological Catchment Area (ECA); Diagnostic Interview Schedule (DIS); Life Events
and Social History Questionnaire (adapted version) (LESHQ); WHOís Composite International Diagnostic
Interview (CIDI); National Comorbidity Study (NCS)

Table 2 highlights the prevalence of mental health disorders in children and adolescents

affected by CEs. This research demonstrates the high prevalence of PTSD, depression

and anxiety among affected children and adolescents xlviii xlix l li lii liii liv lv lvi lvii lviii lix lx lxi as

compared to a baseline of non-traumatized children in the U.S.(References 76 and 77) In

45
 contrast to adult studies (Table 1), the generalizability of these results to CEs is limited

since few of the studies sampled a general population of children involved in a CE53 or

compared the subjects to a comparable non-traumatized control group.54

Table 2: Prevalence of Mental Health Disorders in Children and Adolescents Affected by

CEs
Total Problem
Study PTSD Depression Score % in Screening Source
Clinical Range Tool
CE Populations
6 Year follow up of 30 50% 1984 41% 1987 N/A K-SADS-E Sack WH et al
Young Khmer refugees 38% 1990 6% 1990 (1993)lxii
170 Cambodian adolescent Sack WH et al
refugees 26.5% 12.9% N/A K-SADS-E (1996)lxiii
480 Croatian refugee Zivcic I et al.
children N/A 11.28% N/A CDI (1993)lxiv
59 Young Cambodian- Hubbard J et al
Americans Point 24% 19% N/A SCID-NP (1995)lxv
Lifetime 59%
182 Cambodian refugee Mollica RF et al.
camp adolescents and their N/A N/A CBCL 53.8% CBCL (1997)lxvi
parents YSR 26.4% YSR
209 Khmer Adolescents 12.9-41.2% N/A N/A SSADS Sack WH et al.
SCID (1995)lxvii
99 Cambodian refugees Point 31.3% Point 68.4% N/A SSADS Savin D et al
Lifetime 37.3% Lifetime 86% Interview (1996)lxviii
Cambodian refugees in US Point 28.6% Point 17.1% SSADS
Lifetime 37.1% Lifetime N/A Interview Reference 68
37.1%
12 Bosnian adolescents in Weine S et al
US 25% 17% N/A CTEI (1995)lxix
147 Bosnian children
refugees N/A 25.90% N/A Self Report Stein B (1999)lxx
492 Israeli children during
Scud missile attacks 24.9% N/A N/A SRQ Schwarzwald J et al.
(1993)lxxi
150 Palestinian mothers and Garbarino J
their children N/A N/A 58.8% CBCL et al. (1996)lxxii
234 Children in the Gaza Point 40.6%
Strip 1 Year 10% N/A N/A CPTS-RI Thabet AA et al.
(2000)lxxiii
Baseline Populations
Children (US) N/A Point 2% N/A DSM-III-R AACAP (1998)lxxiv
Interview
9-17 year-olds (US) 6 month 2% 6 month 6% N/A DISC-2.3 Shaffer D (1996)lxxv
Kiddie Schedule For Affective Disorders And Schizophrenia (KSADS); School Children Version Schedule For
Affective Disorders And Schizophrenia (SSADS); Child Depression Inventory (CDI); Child Behavioral Checklist
(CBCL); Youth Self Report (YSR); Communal Traumatic Experiences Inventory (CTEI); Child Posttraumatic
Stress Reaction Index (CPTS-RI); Stress Reaction Questionnaire (SRQ); American Academy of Child and
Adolescent Psychiatry (AACAP).

46
MENTAL HEALTH ACTION PLAN

A mental health action plan for CEs (see Panel 1) should be grounded in

recommendations of the landmark mental health reports of the World Health

Organization (WHO)lxxvi lxxvii and the U.S. Surgeon General. lxxviii

1) Coordination of Mental Health Care

lxxix lxxx
Early intervention in CEs must focus on immediately establishing centralized

coordination of mental health activities ñ there is no evidence that this has ever occurred

in a CE. In most CEs, there are hundreds of organizations implementing varying mental

health programs (e.g. Bosnia, Kosovo). (Reference 8) Little information exists on the

coordination, monitoring, and effectiveness of these programs.

The experiences of relief and assistance organizations, including the US Federal

Management Agency (FEMA) offer insight into the role of coordination in responding to

the mental health needs of disaster-affected populations.lxxxi lxxxii

Although the FEMA

model is not readily transferable to resource-poor environments, it underscores the value

of coordinated services provided by trained mental health practitioners and community

participation. A highly coordinated approach can guarantee that action plan steps are: 1)

subject to outcome evaluation; 2) integrated into and built on the pre-existing mental

health services capacity so as to enhance response capacity for current and subsequent

emergencies; and must 3) ensure that those who are in most need receive appropriate and

effective intervention. Coordination would guarantee that the mental health benefits of

the crisis are evaluated and lessons learned are utilized in future CEs.

Sufficient evidence exists on the role of mental health in CEs to argue that pre-CE

planning of a mental health response can be routinely incorporated into the activities of

47
UN, non-governmental organizations (NGO) and donors prior to their involvement in

CEs.

2) Assessment and Monitoring

A population-based assessment must be undertaken immediately of: 1) mental health

problems and resources; 2) identification of vulnerable groups; and 3) availability of

resources capable of providing mental health support to the community and clinical care

to patients.

A major barrier to the effective implementation of an effective action plan has been the

lack of guidelines linked to a formal system of assessment and monitoring.(Reference 1)

The absence of criteria for evidence-based best practices for achieving mental health

outcomes has lead some public health authorities to doubt the positive contribution of

mental health assistance in CEs.lxxxiii

WHO recommendations for mental health in emergency situations (Reference 77) and the

Sphere projectlxxxiv may lead to results in this area. Until culturally validated and

standardized mental health needs assessments become available for use in CEs, simple

ethnographically informed quantitative measures can be generated for each CE to provide

invaluable information for planning, monitoring, and evaluation that include simple

measures of macro-level factors (economic opportunities, social capital, and human

rights violations), mental health outcomes (symptoms and disability), and available

mental health resources.

48
3) Early Intervention Phase
lxxxv
Early mental health interventions in CEs must focus on (Reference 77) : 1)

supporting public health activities aimed at reducing mortality and morbidity; 2) offering

psychological ìfirst aidî; 3) identifying and triaging seriously mentally ill persons to

specialized psychiatric carelxxxvi; and 4) mobilizing community-based resiliency and

adaptation.

To date, early CE mental health interventions have been based upon the premise that

90% of the affected-population will not develop mental illness in spite of high initial

levels of emotional distress related to the crisis. (Reference 79, 85) This premise may be

incorrect. Table 1 data reveal the development of chronic psychiatric disorders. The

aforementioned study on Bosnian refugees shows that a higher percentage of individuals

may be seriously affected by chronic mental illness than previously

considered.(Reference 33) Eventually high risk individuals will be identified through

early screening and will be treated. For the general population, the action plan must

support the normalization of everyday life, through the reduction of medical diseases,

reestablishment of normal socio-cultural and economic activities, family reunification

and protection from ongoing violence. The most intensive psychological intervention at

this phase is psychological ìfirst aidî which consists of listening (not forcing talk),

conveying compassion, ensuring basic needs, mobilizing support from family members

or significant others and protecting the survivor from further harm. (Reference 77)

49
4) The De Facto Mental Health Care System

The existing mental health care system consists of local primary care practitioners (PCP),

traditional healers and relief organization workers that are capable of being organized ito

a culturally competent effective mental health system during CEs.

A. Primary Health Care

The role of primary health care (PHC)lxxxvii in the mental health care of resettled

traumatized refugees has been well-documented.lxxxviii The integration of mental health

services into PHC has been widely promoted, especially in developing countries. lxxxix xc

PCPs are well suited for helping traumatized patients by identifying and treating medical

and psychiatric disorders during CEs.xci Local doctors, nurses, social workers, and

occasionally psychiatrists (e.g. in Bosniaxcii xciii) exist within the community in crisis and

can be mobilized to deal effectively with their communityís mental health needs.

In CEs, PCPs have the capacity to treat the mental health problems of traumatized

patients in a non-stigmatizing environment since in most societies emotionally distressed

individuals avoid psychiatric treatment. With modest training, PCPs can obtain the

patientís traumatic life history and identify related physical and mental health sequelae,

in order to provide culturally sensitive assistance.xciv PCPs can also identify illnesses and

disabilities resulting from human rights violations.

Randomized clinical trials (RCT) in non-traumatized populations reveal the important

potential role of mental health services in PHC in CEs. PHCís efficacy has been

demonstrated for the treatment of depression. xcv xcvi

Effective interventions include use

50
of: 1) psychotropic drugs and 2) interpersonal therapy and cognitive-behavioral therapy

(CBT). The most effective treatment for PTSD in PHC has not been substantiated.

Studies mainly from small RCTs suggest that specific psychological treatments such as

CBT and psychotropic drugs are effective.xcvii While supportive counseling is useful for

practical assistance helping patients cope with the adversities of a CE, there is no

evidence currently available that it prevents or ameliorates PTSD. However, there is also

no evidence to date that supportive counseling is harmful. Recent studies indicate that

CBT is effective for cases of PTSD that have failed to respond to supportive

counseling.xcviii xcix

A review by Raphael and Wilsonc provides evidence that routine debriefing should not be

used by PCPs and other providers in CEs, in light of potential harm that may result.

These authors state that stress debriefing is not recommended for disaster-affected

populations as there is evidence that it is both ineffective and potentially associated with

adverse outcomes. The effectiveness of eye movement desensitization and reprocessing

(EMDR) is being studied; early data indicated that EMDR can be an effective component

of treatment. However, more recent studies have not substantiated the efficacy of the
ci cii ciii
technique. Similarly drawing and art therapy, which have children relive their

experience of violence while revealing no harmful effects have not been proven to be

therapeutic.civ

51
B. Traditional Healing

A major component of the indigenous healing system that can be utilized in CEs is the

traditional healing system and its practitioners. Traditional medicine (TM) is those

diverse health practices, approaches, knowledge and beliefs incorporating plant, animal

and/or mineral based medicines, spiritual therapies, manual technologies and exercises

applied singularly or in combination to maintain the well-being of the patient, as well as

to treat, diagnose or prevent illness. TM is widely accepted and practiced as a valid form

of treatment worldwide. In industrialized countries, alternative approaches to Western

medicine are developing rapidly.cv

A traditional healer often is a religious healer or family (or community) elder. TM

generally uses a local classification system for emotional distress consisting of folk

diagnoses accepted by the community. Patientsí accessibility to TM practitioners,

confidence in their abilities to manage mental health problems, reduced stigma, and

potential cost-effectiveness place traditional healers in a suitable position to be supported

in CEs.

Experience with traditional healing and mental health has been extensively described for

the Cambodian refugee crisis of the 1990s. cvi cvii cviii

The evidence base for TM

interventions is growing. RCTs in non-CE situations reveal the clinical effectiveness of

herbal medicines, acupuncture, and non-medication therapies in reducing depression,

anxiety, insomnia, and pain.

52
C. Psychosocial Approach

Mental health services provided by relief organizations have been in the form of

psychosocial interventions. These interventions fall along a wide-spectrum.cix cx based on

a primary concern for the psychological and social well-being of the individual to the

repair of damaged collective social structures. The term ìpsychosocialîcxi: ì underlines

the dynamic relationship between psychological effects (e.g. emotions, behaviors,

memory) and social effects (e.g. altered relationships due to death, separation, family and

community breakdown), each continually influencing each other. Psychosocial

interventions aim to enhance the abilities of survivors of mass violence to ìcopeî with

the demands of their social world that has been shattered by mass violence.

Psychosocial proponents uphold that CEs impact on a populationís capacities is not

reflected solely or primarily in terms of established psychopathology.cxii This approach

upholds that while resources are depleted across many domains, three in particular reflect

psychosocial well-being: human capacity (i.e. skills, knowledge, capabilities), social

ecology (social connectedness and networks) and culture and values. Psychosocial

proponents focus on bolstering resources in these domains in order to enhance the

individualís and communitiesí psychosocial well-being.cxiii

Psychosocial approaches usually focus on directing their services towards vulnerable

groups or those with ìspecial needsî.cxiv These are individuals with specific

characteristics that place them at risk for developing psychological distress and social

disability and who have the potential of being neglected, abused, and stigmatized by their

society, limiting their capacity to access humanitarian relief. The psychosocial emphasis

53
on vulnerable groups, however, should not preclude an appreciation of the mental health

impact of mass violence on all members of an affected population.

Few evidence-based psychosocial studies exist demonstrating the effectiveness of

specific components of this approach. A study by Mollica et al. of Cambodian refugees

on the Thai-Cambodian border revealed environmental conditions (e.g. opportunity for

economic productive activities) that could have been ameliorated by camp authorities,

reducing psychiatric morbidity among camp residents.cxv In a study of psychosocial

program beneficiaries in Bosnia-Herzegovina and Croatia, Agger and Mimica (Reference

8) found positive appraisals of services received, with higher rankings for the general

value of group meetings and shared activities than individual therapeutic provision.

Many psychosocial project evaluations have utilized beneficiary feedback despite

methodological limitations.cxvi A case-control study by Dybdahl revealed a reduction of

intrusive memories and higher self-rating of well-being in traumatized mothers in Bosnia

who participated in weekly group meetings compared to mothers who received basic
cxvii
package medical care. The initial results of the UN with emergency and peace
cxviii cxix
education with the objective of improving social capital is promising, yet needs

further evaluation.

D. Specialized Psychiatric Services

Western-trained psychiatric practitioners in CEs can participate in trainings, provide

consultation and on-site supervision within the system, conduct evaluation and evidence-

based research.(Reference 86) They have an important role in providing specialized

clinical care to the seriously mentally ill. Many conflict-affected countries have limited

54
experience with Western psychiatry (e.g. Rwanda has one psychiatrist), demanding that

psychiatric practitioners maximize their impact by partnering in a culturally effective

manner with the local indigenous healing system.

5) Training and Education

During the CE emergency phase, first responders who are on the frontlines in health care

and humanitarian assistance should be trained in basic mental health concepts such as

psychological ìfirst-aidî.(References 77, 79) Mental health practitioners must be

provided with additional skills and knowledge, that will enable them to deliver culturally

effective evidence-based mental health interventions since few mental health

practitioners have previously encountered the high numbers of individuals emotionally

affected by the violence characterized by CEs.cxx

A new trend is the provision of brief mental health trainings to policy-makers, doctors,

teachers, and relief workers by relief organizations. Professional expertise and mental

health knowledge of those being trained frequently exceeds that of the trainers. Despite

their popularity, scientific evidence is lacking to substantiate positive results of these

trainings.cxxi In contrast, recent evaluations of mental health trainings of local PCPs in

Bosnia and Cambodia have revealed sustainable results.cxxii

While mental health training materials have been extensively produced, few curricula are

available or have been evaluated for their scientific quality and cultural content. All CE

training projects must be made publicly available along with lessons learned in order to

avoid duplication of effort and prevent the repetition of failed approaches.

55
6) Cultural Competence

CEs have affected societies that have different medical worldviews from the Western

medical perspective. Mental health programs in CEs must ensure the provision of

culturally effective services; yet not a single scientific study on providing culturally

competent health and mental health services in a CE was found by this review. This is

surprising as it has been well-demonstrated that ethnicity and culture have a major impact

on mental health-seeking behavior and treatment outcomes;cxxiii cxxiv cxxv cxxvi cxxvii and it is

expected that these effects will be intensified during a CE.

Furthermore, cultural attitudes and behaviors toward mental health care may exist that

need to be overcome during a CE such as: fear of the mental health care system due to

its prior utilization for torture, punishment and incarceration; stigma and community

rejection of vulnerable groupscxxviii; and avoidance of the health care system, since health

facilities have been targeted for destruction.cxxix

Much debate has surrounded the cultural validity of the Western diagnosis of PTSD in

non-Western societies.cxxx However, significant advances in the ethnographic study of

traumatized populations have demonstrated the common symptoms of emotional distress

and related folk diagnoses that can be utilized by mental health providers in caring for

these populations. (Reference 88) Western psychiatric diagnoses based upon the DSM-

IV and ICD-10 can be combined with specific folk diagnoses to provide maximum

benefit to the patient. (Reference 106)

Cultural competence should characterize the mental health action planís goals and

procedures. It is insufficient for individual providers alone to practice cultural

56
competence in a CE. The California Pan-Ethnic Network and the California Healthcare

Foundation compiled a list of 12 major characteristics of a culturally competent

organization that can be directly applied to a CE setting (including knowledge of

population served; diversity in organization, governance and decision-making;

mandatory cultural competence training; promoting delivery of culturally competent

health care; and measuring outcomes).cxxxi

7) Ethics and Community Participation

Mental health practices must be infused with the ethical diligence to ìdo no harmî and to

ensure respect for the ìfreedomî and ìautonomyî of patients.cxxxii Informed consent is

the basis of all mental health interventionscxxxiii and without it, no mental health

intervention in a CE can be morally justified. Informed consent must be articulated and

communicated in a culturally appropriate manner. While difficult in a CE setting, the

patient and community should be an equal partner in a shared decision-making process.

Similar standards apply to psychosocial interventions whereby community input and

participation are required for those interventions operating at the collective level. The

Humanitarian Accountability Projectcxxxiv is a step in ensuring this. Mental health care

providers in a CE must make a special effort to guarantee informed consent, since normal

standards that existed prior to the conflict are frequently either disrupted by the

destruction of the healthcare system or may have never existed in the first place.

Public awareness campaigns that involve the community in all aspects of the action plan

are not only ethically responsible but may also be therapeutic. Yet, it is naÔve to think

57
that mental health care is uniformly benign in CEs and is associated with limited

risks. cxxxv Some mental health interventions in CEs, especially when used in caring for

individuals suffering from extremely traumatized life events (such as sexual violence

and/or murder of a child), can be extremely intrusive and psychologically disturbing and

lead to serious negative mental health outcomes. While eliciting the ìtrauma storyî of

survivors is essential to the practice of mental health care at the individual and collective

levelcxxxvi cxxxvii
and cannot be avoidedcxxxviii, it is dangerous for the mental health

practitioners to engage in an active stripping away of survivor psychological defenses

(e.g. denial of recent traumas) in order to unmask the underlying trauma experience

believed to be at the basis of the survivorsí mental health and physical problems. Talking

cures are not always benign or welcomed, especially in non-Western cultures. Scientific

evidence still needs to determine the type of personal sharing of traumatic life

experiences that are most beneficial to the healing process.cxxxix

8) Ensuring self-care: preventing and addressing ìburnoutî of mental health care

providers

Awareness is growing of the potential negative mental health impact of CEs on relief

workers. Recent years have seen a shift from initial advocacy for the psychological

needs of humanitarian workers working in challenging circumstances to empirical

analyses of risk and resilience factors.cxl It appears a ëdose-responseí relationship exists

between the experience of trauma events and anxiety symptoms of clinical significance,

indicating the mediating role of personal coping resources. Vulnerability is greatest for

those workers either on their first assignment or with a long history of serial

deployments.

58
Of particular concern are local staff who have been traumatized by the CE. Evidence is

accumulating regarding the particular vulnerabilities of such personnel.cxli Strategies to

provide effective mental health protection, and treatment if necessary of ëfront-lineí

personnel in the course of interventions within CEs need to be clearly identified.cxlii

9) Outcome Evaluation and Research

Public health experts have called for all health interventions in CEs to be evidence-

based.cxliii cxliv cxlv (See Panel 2) Many mental health interventions utilized in CEs are not

based upon sound scientific evidence (Reference 79), and a full description of the best

practices for culturally effective mental health services in CEs remain to be determined.

This obligation to ensure evidence-based mental health interventions during CEs was

underscored at a meeting of mental health scientists assembled after the September 11th

disaster, where those present acknowledged a moral obligation ìto conduct scientifically

valid research to improve prevention, assessment, and intervention and treatmentî during

CEs.

While evidence-based practices applicable to CEs can be derived from interventions

investigated in natural disasters and individual traumatic events (e.g. car accidents), the

relevancy of this approach to CEs is limited. For example, in a review of the scientific

literature related to early clinical interventions targeted at survivors of mass violence

none of 76 studies cited was conducted in a CE. (Reference 79) The greatest barrier

today for the role of mental health as an essential public health activity is the lack of

systematic research evaluating clinical treatments and psychosocial interventions during

a CE.cxlvi cxlvii

59
Development of a culturally valid evidence-based action plan for CEs must begin with

the outcome evaluation of current mental health activities. These evaluations should use

standardized uniform measures that can be simply applied by relief organizations to

cxlviii cxlix cl cli
assess results. (Reference 30, Reference 31) The public reporting and

discussion of these results is essential so that the experience and lessons learned from

mental health programs can be used to improve ongoing activities and contribute to

future CEs. For example, the outcome results of UNICEFís national training program in

Rwanda and UNHCRís counseling programs in the Balkans could provide considerable

benefits to future efforts. clii

Donors and relief organizations need to advocate for research and evaluation in mental

health as a major funding priority during CEs. Some have argued that research is a

wasteful utilization of limited resources and increases the likelihood that the scientific

community will exploit vulnerable populations. However, the opposite is true. Careful

research provides effective interventions that will maximize resource allocation.

Furthermore, international covenants beginning with the United Nations Declaration of

Human Rights (1948)cliii, offer specific proscriptions against the coercion of individuals

into medical and scientific experiments. Guidelines to ensure ethical behavior in

research conducted during CEs can and should be established. cliv clv clvi

60
 PANEL 1: MENTAL HEALTH ACTION PLAN FOR CEs

Components Key Features

Coordination of Mental Health Care Strong centralized coordination established at beginning of CE to organize, monitor,
supervise and evaluate all mental health activities.

Assessment and Monitoring Early rapid baseline assessment of the populationís resiliency and risk factors, and
vulnerable groupís mental health problems and available mental health resources.

Monitoring system established able to review changes in baseline status over time

Early Intervention Phase Early interventions must:

1) support reduction in mortality and morbidity;
2) offer population-wide ìpsychological first-aidî;
3) identify and triage seriously mentally ill to psychiatric treatment; and
4) mobilize community-based resiliency and adaptation by facilitating restoration
of normal community life.
De facto mental health system Build-up and finance the de facto mental health system of local primary health care
practitioners, traditional healers, and local/international relief workers

Use culturally validated and scientifically established mental health interventions

throughout the system.

Training and Education Train all front-line responders in basic mental health principles such as
psychological ìfirst aidî.

Build mental health capacity in the de facto mental health care system through
effective training that emphasizes teaching of culturally effective evidence-based
interventions.

Implement, manage and monitor a culturally All policies, practitioners, and organizational structures must actively utilize the
competent system of care cultural medical worldview of the population(s) served as well as engage the local
communitiesí participation in the action plan.

Ethics and community participation Informed consent must be followed. Patients and communities must participate in
shared decision-making processes.

Public awareness campaigns will improve community support of plan and improve
outcomes.

Prevention of negative mental health All mental health providers must be provided with a self-care program that includes
consequences among mental health providers identification of risk factors and opportunities for resiliency in order to prevent
negative mental health outcomes.

Mental health treatment must be readily available to affected relief workers in a safe,
non-punitive and confidential setting.

Outcome Evaluation and Research All mental health interventions must be evaluated as to their overall benefit to
individuals and community as well as to their cost-effectiveness.

All mental health trainings must be evaluated to determine at minimum an increase

in skills and knowledge of culturally competent evidence-based practices.

61
 Scientific investigations including population studies and RCTs are not a luxury and
must be incorporated into all mental health action plans (see Panel 2)

PANEL 2: RESEARCH AGENDA FOR MENTAL HEALTH AND CEs

Future Investigations Rationale

Adapt and develop culturally valid and Instruments such as the HTQ, HSCL-25 and GHQ can be expanded for use in
reliable instruments with known psychometric current CEs by establishing their psychometric properties through a simple
properties for measuring risk and resiliency standardized approach.
factors and mental health outcomes

Simple measures that include risk and resiliency factors such as economic status and
social capital do not exist for baseline mental health needs assessments. Culturally
validated measurements of physical functioning and socio-economic disability are
necessary for identifying those in need of mental health care without sole reliance on
psychiatric symptomatology, as currently exists.

Undertake longitudinal studies that assess the The natural course of mental health outcomes in conflict-affected populations is
impact of CEs on the health and mental health unknown; cause and effect relationships are poorly described by available cross-
status of conflict-affected populations over sectional research. Studies are necessary for planning, preventing and for the timing
time and implementation of interventions.

Conduct evidence-based studies of the While scientific studies from other settings support the benefits of a number of
effectiveness of interventions mental health interventions, few evidence-based intervention studies such as an RCT
have been conducted during a CE.

Conduct evidence-based studies of the In spite of the increased frequency of mental health trainings in CEs, few studies
effectiveness of mental health trainings have evaluated the effectiveness of trainings. Studies must focus on relative
effectiveness of mental health trainings in producing sustainable results including
increase in the knowledge and skills of scientific practices, and the proper use of
these practices resulting in improved mental health outcomes.

Investigate the ability of public awareness Do public health awareness campaigns help prevent psychiatric illness as well as
campaigns to protect affected populations increase the use of services by those most in need? Do they improved shared
against the negative mental health decision-making and community participation? Are they the most culturally
consequences of CEs acceptable approach to guaranteeing community involvement? If the answers to any
of these questions is no, what are more effective alternatives?

Determine the unit cost of providing culturally This information is essential for donors and policy-makers to make informed
competent, evidence-based mental health care decisions on their financial support of a mental health action plan.
during CEs

***Research agenda applies to adults, children and adolescents.

REFERENCES

62
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Burkle FM. Lessons Learnt and Future Expectations of Complex Emergencies. BMJ
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Mollica RF. Invisible Wounds. Scientific American 2000 June; 282(6): 54-7.
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Armfield F. Preventing post-traumatic stress disorder resulting from military operations.
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Kulka RA, Schlenger WE, Fairbank JA, Hough RL, et al: National Vietnam veterans
readjustment study (NVVRS): Description, current status, and initial PTSD prevalence
estimates. Veterans Administration, Washington, DC, 1988.
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Committee for the Coordination of Services to Displaced Persons in Thailand
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Mollica RF, Jalbert RR. Community of Confinement: The Mental Health Crisis in Site
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 CHAPTER 4

EVIDENCE-BASED MENTAL HEALTH TREATMENTS FOR CHILDREN AND

ADOLESCENTS IN THE AFTERMATH OF COMPLEX HUMANITARIAN
EMERGENCIES AND MASS VIOLENCE

Victor Balaban, Ph.D.

ABSTRACT

War, complex humanitarian emergencies and other mass trauma experiences can have
devastating effects on children and adolescents. Childrenís immature abilities to
understand and process the immediate and long term effects of emergencies ñ their own
injuries and exposure to traumatic events, traumatized or injured parents, loss of loved
ones, disruptions of daily routines, frightening images in the media ñ make children
among the most vulnerable members of affected communities. Psychological responses
to trauma are normal, and it is not uncommon for traumatized children to appear stunned,
numb, unresponsive, mute, hyper-vigilant or frantic in the immediate aftermath of
trauma. However, the majority of children and adolescents show resilience and recovery
in the face of disaster. The greatest effects on children happen when a child experiences
violent harm to themselves or loved ones, is threatened with such violence, or engages in
harming others. In addition, children are affected when parents are killed, harmed,
terrified or unable to function. In the immediate post-disaster phase, children and
families will benefit most from programs that provide psychological first aid by
bolstering family and social support, providing news and information about the situation,
and returning to normal roles and routines. It is extremely important to avoid separating
families whenever possible. Children of all ages will experience anxiety, and in some
cases panic, if separated from parents or caretakers. While there is a tremendous need for
basic knowledge about appropriate treatments and interventions that support
psychological and social resilience in children and families, all available data point to the
importance of early intervention. For those children and adolescents whose symptoms
persist, the available data suggests that early, brief, and focused cognitive behavioral
treatment approaches (CBT) have the strongest empirical evidence for reducing post-
traumatic symptoms.

CHILDRENíS RESPONSES TO TRAUMA

With the increasing sophistication of recent research, a body of data has emerged

showing that children and adolescents who experience catastrophic events can have a

wide range of psychosocial reactions including, but not limited to, post traumatic stress

75
disorder (PTSD)10, depression, anxiety, somatic disturbances, learning problems, anxiety

and behavioural disorders. See Figure 1 for an overview of post-traumatic symptoms in

children (Mollica et al., in press; NACCT, 2003; NIMH, 2002; NPDPRCM, 2003).

Figure 1 ñ Traumatic Stress Reactions in Children and Adolescents

Ages Traumatic Stress Reactions

0-5 Fears of being separated from parents, crying, whimpering, screaming,
immobility and/or aimless motion, trembling, frightened facial expressions
and excessive clinging. Children may also regress to behaviors exhibited at
earlier ages, such as thumb-sucking, bedwetting, and fear of darkness.
Younger children may also show signs of re-experiencing traumatic events in
the form of play reenactment.
6-11 Withdrawal, disruptive behavior, and/or inability to pay attention. Regressive
behaviors, nightmares, sleep problems, irrational fears, irritability, refusal to
attend school, outbursts of anger and fighting are also common in traumatized
children of this age. Also the child may complain of stomachaches or other
bodily symptoms that have no medical basis. Schoolwork often suffers.
Depression, anxiety, feelings of guilt and emotional numbing or "flatness"
may be present as well.
12-17 Adolescents may exhibit responses similar to those of adults, including
flashbacks, nightmares, emotional numbing, avoidance of any reminders of
the traumatic event, depression, substance abuse, problems with peers, and
anti-social behavior. Also common are withdrawal and isolation, physical
complaints, suicidal thoughts, school avoidance, academic decline, sleep
disturbances, and confusion. Adolescents may feel extreme guilt over failure
to prevent injury or loss of life, and may harbor revenge fantasies that
interfere with recovery from the trauma.

10
Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is an anxiety disorder that can occur after
exposure to traumatic stress, and symptoms of PTSD are among the most common types
of psychological distress observed in children after disasters. It is characterized by 1)
persistent re-experiencing of the traumatic event such as recurring or intrusive thoughts
or nightmares; 2) emotional numbing or avoidance of cues such as people or places
associated with the trauma; and 3) persistent physiological hyper-reactivity or arousal.
Signs and symptoms must be present for more than one month following the traumatic
event and cause clinically significant disturbance in functioning in order to meet a
diagnosis of PTSD. A child is considered to have Acute Stress Disorder (ASD) when
these criteria are met during the month following a traumatic event. PTSD is further
characterized as Acute when present for less than three months, Chronic when present for
more than three months or Delayed Onset when symptoms develop initially six months
or more after the trauma (DSM-IV-R; Pfefferbaum, 1997; Yule, 1999).

76
Post-traumatic symptoms can occur immediately or some time after a traumatic event,

and children who have witnessed violence in their families, schools, or communities are

also vulnerable to serious long-term problems. Early and well-organized intervention is

an essential component of promoting psychosocial resilience children and families after

disasters, and in preventing the development of problems in the future (LaGreca et al.,

2003; NACCT, 2003; NIMH, 2002; NPDPRCM, 2003; Norris et al., 2002; Pfefferbaum,

1997; Shalev et al., 2004; Yule, 2001). Although the relationship is not simple, there is

evidence that children who are in closer proximity to traumatic events and who are

exposed to multiple or ongoing traumatic events, are at higher risk for PTSD symptoms

(Pynoos et al., 1998; Vernberg, 2003). Evidence suggests that the majority of children

who do develop PTSD symptoms will do so in the immediate weeks and months

following a disaster, while symptoms of depression may emerge months later. There is

also evidence that perception of a threat to life is associated with emergence of PTSD

symptoms, whether or not anyone was actually injured or killed in the event; and that

mass trauma caused by terrorism or other deliberate human intent maybe more traumatic

than traumas resulting from natural disasters or industrial accidents (Norris et al., 2002;

Silverman & LaGreca, 2003; Yule, 2001).

Acute stress reactions are common in the immediate aftermath of disasters and mass

violence. These reactions are not the same as PTSD, although many of the symptoms

may be similar. Responding to trauma is normal, and it is not uncommon for

traumatized children to appear stunned, numb, unresponsive, mute, hyper-vigilant or

frantic in the aftermath of trauma. Stress reactions can also include aggressive behaviors

as well as reduced social competencies, depression, fears, anxiety, sleep disturbances,

77
and learning problems. Children exposed to war and mass violence may also experience

intense stresses that include fear of death and fear of loss of their parent. It is not

uncommon for children to experience intense rage, feelings of guilt, and a sense of

responsibility for violent events to which they are exposed. It is also common for

children and adolescents to report loss of trust in adults and fear of traumatic events

occurring again (Groves, 1999; Mollica et al., in press; Shalev et al., 2004). Other

common acute stress reactions vary according to age and are summarized in Figure 1.

Reactions to trauma may appear immediately after the traumatic event or days and even

weeks later. The presence of post-traumatic symptoms is not necessarily cause for long-

term follow-up because, in many cases, they will eventually remit within several weeks

or months. In some cases, acute stress responses may even have an adaptive value i.e.

avoiding reminders of trauma may keep survivors away from dangerous situations

(Shalev et al., 2004). There is currently no data available for how long stress responses

last in children, but adult survivors of traumatic events who do not manifest symptoms

after approximately two months generally do not require follow-up, although they should

receive follow-up if they request it (NIMH, 2002).

EARLY INTERVENTION AND PSYCHOLOGICAL FIRST AID

Because of the small number of studies that are specific to disaster interventions for

children and adolescents, many of which are methodologically limited, it is necessary to

extrapolate findings from the adult trauma intervention literature. In general, it has been

found that the majority of adults exposed to disaster and emergencies show resilience and

78
do not develop trauma-related psychopathology (Shalev et al., 2004). It is likely, though

not yet proven, that many children and adolescent may also display acute stress

symptoms in post-emergency contexts, but that the majority will not develop

psychopathology. Since acute stress reactions are very common in the immediate

aftermath of disasters and mass violence, and are not predictive of later psychopathology,

early psychotherapy is not considered an effective early intervention or an efficient use of

resources. Some forms of early psychological interventions, such as mandatory

debriefings, where survivors of a traumatic event are brought together soon after the

event and asked to recall the details of the trauma and discuss their emotional reactions,

may even worsen outcomes (see Shalev et al., 2004). While a minority of children and

adolescents may exhibit severe reactions such as extreme dissociation, acute suicidal

behaviors or homicidal rage that need immediate protection and care; care for the

majority should focus on ìpsychological first aidî.

Psychological first aid refers to pragmatic interventions designed to provide immediate

needs and emotional support to victims of trauma. The goals of psychological first aid

are to manage immediate crises and help children and families function as well as

possible (Shalev et al., 2004; NIMH, 2002). These goals can be accomplished by

activities such as establishing safe environments, providing food, rest, sleep, and medical

care, providing accurate information about ongoing events, connecting children and

families to available resources, and to the extent possible, returning to daily routines and

reestablishing opportunities of play and go to school (NIMH, 2002; Vernberg, 2002).

Whenever possible, interventions should be consistent with the UNICEF best practice

recommendations that interventions with traumatized youths take place in stable and

79
supportive environments and be administered by caregivers who have solid and

continuing relationships with the children (Machel, 1996).

Figure 2 lists some important elements of post-disaster support and psychological first

aid.

Figure 2 - Important Elements of Post-Conflict Support and Psychological First Aid.

Basic Needs
• Provide survival, and a safe and secure environment
• Provide food, shelter and rest
• Provide medical care
• Orient survivors to the availability of services and support
• Provide opportunities to communicate with family, friends, and community
members

Psychological First Aid

• Protect survivors from further harm.
• Reduce stress and anxiety
• Mobilize support for those who are most distressed
• Keep families together and facilitate reunions with loved ones
• Provide information about ongoing events

Fostering Resilience and Recovery

• Foster but do not force social interactions i.e. with caretakers and with
other children.
• Provide coping skills i.e. problem solving and anger management
training
• Provide education on stress responses, traumatic reminders, coping,
normal versus abnormal functioning, risk factors, available mental health
services, etc.
• Foster natural social supports.i.e. reuniting families, resuming expected
roles and routines, providing opportunities for worship, public ceremonies,
memorials and rituals, etc
• Look after the bereaved i.e. provide strategies for coping with grief by
identifying traumatic grief reactions and helping children to form a non-
traumatic image of their loved ones
• Provide opportunities for meaningful action and activities
• Repair the organizational fabric. i.e. to the extent possible, returning to
daily routines and reestablishing opportuities of play and go to school
(Sources: NIMH, 2002; Vernberg, 2002)

Whenever possible, psychological first aid for children should focus on restoring social

support for individuals, families and communities i.e. by providing opportunities to

connect with family and community members, reassuring children that they are loved and

80
that adults will do everything possible to keep them safe, answering questions, and

resuming routines and community activities. It is especially important to help parents

function as well as possible and provide meaningful activities for children and

adolescents. There is evidence that better psychological and emotional functioning in

parents following disasters and emergencies is an important predictor of better mental

health outcomes in children; and that resuming familiar roles and routines as soon as

possible can help reduce the intensity and duration of post-traumatic reactions (NACCT,

2003; Prinstein et al., 1996; Vernberg, 2002). For children and adolescents this ideally

includes reopening schools and other institutions as soon as possible, and providing

information about events and about expected stress reactions for parents and teachers in

formats children can understand. Although not yet supported by research, it has also

been suggested that public ceremonies, memorials and rituals can help children and

families to express grief and provide opportunities for social support (Vernberg, 2002).

In addition, it is increasingly being recognized that post-disaster child and adolescent

mental health services are best provided, not only by clinicians, but also in interactions

with a range of individuals and groups with whom children have contact in the aftermath

of complex humanitarian emergencies and mass violence. These interactions can include

law enforcement, emergency responders, community providers and local "de facto" child

and family mental health systems such as primary care providers, school teachers,

counselors and nurses, clergy, family members, and neighbors. It is particularly

important to integrate these ìde factoî child and family mental health systems into early

responses and supportive care, i.e. non-traditional first responders such as members of

the faith community and volunteer organizations who are often first on the scene and

81
resources to whom families turn to in times of difficulty as sources of emotional and

spiritual support (NACCT, 2003; NPDPRCM, 2003).

SCREENING

Effective intervention following war and mass violence can be facilitated by screening

and identifying children and adolescents who have persistent trauma-related symptoms.

In situations involving mass violence and related threats, the mental health and

psychosocial needs of children should be assessed as soon as possible, using validated

behavioral and psychosocial assessment instruments, in order to identify populations of

children and adolescents who may be at higher risk for developing trauma-related

psychopathology, direct resources, and allow for early intervention (Cohen et al., 2000;

NIMH, 2002.

Evidence suggests several important factors that should be taken into account whenever

conducting post-emergency mental health needs assessments of children and adolescents

events (Balaban, in preparation).

1) Necessity of assessing severity and type of trauma.

It is essential that the type, nature, and duration of trauma be assessed in children

exposed to disasters and emergencies. There is evidence of relationships between the

type and severity of trauma children are exposed to and the outcome in relation to PTSD,

anxiety, and depression, i.e. children in war situations may have been exposed to a

variety of traumas over long periods of time, while children in the aftermath of a natural

disaster may be dealing with a single, relatively circumscribed event.

82
A screening should include basic exposure information about where the children were

and what happened to them and those around them. This should be followed by specific

questions about high-risk experiences for example, direct life-threat, being trapped or

injured, witnessing grotesque injury, hearing screams of distress, being separated from

family members or caretakers, or, injury or death of family members. Additional

exposure screening questions should address the child's subjective appraisal of the event

and associated emotional responses.

2) Necessity of assessing multiple disorders

Post-emergency psychological assessment should not be limited to determining the

presence of any single psychological disorder. A great deal of the current knowledge of

childrenís psychological responses to disasters is based on research on PTSD. However,

PTSD is only one of a range of possible responses to trauma. Traumatized children can

also exhibit trauma-based symptoms including physical symptoms such as headaches or

stomachaches, anxiety, depression, and behavioral problems such as aggressive or

disruptive behaviors (see Figure 1).

3) Independent Assessment of Childrenís Behavior

Whenever possible, assessments of children should include an assessment of the childís

functioning by an adult familiar with the childís behavior such as a parent, caretaker or

teacher. Assessing child mental health often requires input from several informants.

Children have generally been found to be able to accurately report their own internal

states, but are often not reliable observers of their own behaviors. Adults, in contrast, are

83
generally reliable observers of childrenís behaviors, but have a tendency to underestimate

childrenís emotional distress.

4) Assessment of family members, especially mothers

If possible, assessments of childrenís mental health should be conducted in conjunction

with an assessment of parental mental health. A variety of studies have indicated that

parental adjustment, particularly mothers, is an important predictor of childrenís mental

health outcomes. If a parent is distressed, depressed or highly anxious, he or she may

need to get emotional support or counseling in order to be able to better care for and help

their children.

5) Functional status

Whenever possible, screening instruments should include questions of social and

behavioural functioning such as how children are behaving at home and at school. In the

aftermath of emergencies, some children who report trauma symptoms in an assessment

might be functioning well enough not to need immediate intervention; while the absence

of reported symptoms does not necessarily mean that a child is not distressed and not

functioning well.

6) Age and Developmental Differences

Although the impact of age on childrenís post-traumatic behavior and functioning are not

yet well understood, it is critically important that any assessment instruments used in an

assessment be age and developmentally appropriate and presented in language that

children can understand. Instruments used in post-emergency assessment of younger

84
children must take into account their limited verbal skills and different ways of reacting

to stress. For example, younger children may show re-experiencing symptoms of PTSD

in the form of play reenactment, rather than flashbacks or intrusive thoughts.

7) Pre-Existing Risk Factors

Good practice in early intervention should take into account the special needs of those

who may be vulnerable and less able to cope with unfolding situations. A variety of

studies have identified risk factors which influence response to trauma and affect

recovery. These include: exposure to previous traumas, pre-existing psychopathology

such as depression or anxiety disorders, and social isolation. Other studies of

traumatized child populations have also indicated that family displacement and loss of

parents can add to the effects of the original trauma itself.

8) Cross-cultural differences

Whenever possible, assessments should be carried out using instruments that have been

validated in the culture and population where they are being used, since different ethnic

and cultural groups may have different categories of mental health and illness, and

different culturally appropriate ways to express grief, pain and loss. Many assessment

instruments may not be appropriately sensitive to cultural and ethnic variability; and

simply translating an instrument into another language does not necessarily mean that the

same symptoms or the same disorders are being assessed across cultures. Even when

language is not an issue, original validation studies of an instrument may not be sufficient

to establish cutoff scores in a new setting or population i.e. a test validated in a middle

class clinical population may need to be re-validated for use in a non-Western context.

85
TREATMENT

There is reliable evidence that psychotherapy can be effective in treating symptoms of

PTSD, depression, anxiety and phobias in children and adolescents, either alone or in

combination with medications (Cohen et al., 2000; Kazdin et al., 2003).

Medications

There has been a great deal of research on the use of psychotropic medications for adults

with PTSD, including research on the formation of emotionally charged memories and

medications that may help block the development of symptoms. Medications appear to

be useful in reducing some adult symptoms of PTSD and accompanying conditions such

as depression and panic, and improving impulse control and related behavioral problems.

However, research on the use of medications to treat PTSD in children and adolescents is

still in very early stages and no definitive recommendations can be made at this time

(Kazdin, 2003; NIMH, 2002). Considering that medications can be expensive and

considerable resources and infrastructure are needed for administration and monitoring

by trained clinicians, use of psychotropic medications for children and adolescents in

post-conflict settings would not be recommended.

Psychotherapy

There have been very few randomized controlled trials of psychological interventions

following disasters and mass violence, and even fewer on interventions for children and

adolescents. However, existing data suggests that early, brief, and focused cognitive

behavioral treatment approaches (CBT) have the strongest empirical evidence for

reducing post-traumatic symptoms in children and adolescents (Kazdin, 2003; NIMH,

86
2002). CBT is generally a short-term form of psychotherapy lasting between eight and

twelve weekly sessions, although sessions can be offered more than once a week. CBT

uses techniques such as teaching stress management, relaxation techniques and problem

solving skills to help in overcoming anxiety or depression and modifying thoughts and

behaviors such as panic at reminders of traumatic events.

At present, the only controlled studies of child treatment following mass trauma after war

or in a developing nation are those of the model of brief trauma- and grief-focused

psychotherapy for children developed by the UCLA Trauma Psychiatry Program

(Goenjian et al.; 1997; Pynoos et al., 1998; Layne et al., 2001). The UCLA model

incorporates many aspects of CBT. It is a school-based group psychotherapy program

that is designed to address five therapeutic foci:

1) Traumatic experiences ñ assessment, restructuring and therapeutic

reprocessing of traumatic event(s)

2) Trauma and loss reminders ñ identifying, normalizing and developing

tolerance for traumatic reminders

3) Postwar stress and adversities - increasing social support and encouraging

proactive measures to cope with stress and losses

4) Traumatic Bereavement - strategies for coping with grief by identifying

traumatic grief reactions and helping children to form a non-traumatic

image of their loved ones

5) Resuming developmental progression - identifying missed developmental

opportunities and promoting appropriate developmental tasks.

87
Goenjian et al. (1997) administered the therapy in four school based settings to 64

Armenian adolescents (mean age 11.5) who reported symptoms of PTSD and depression

18 months after a deadly earthquake. The adolescents received four half-hour group

sessions and two one-hour individual sessions over a three-week period. Youths with

more severe symptoms received two additional individual treatments. The treated

adolescents showed a significant decline in PTSD symptoms 18 months after the

treatments, while a control group of adolescents who did not receive the treatments

showed an increase in symptoms.

Layne et al. (2001) administered the therapy to 55 Bosnian adolescents (mean age 16.8)

who reported symptoms of PTSD and depression fours years after the war. The

adolescents received an average of 20 group psychotherapy sessions over a twelve week

period. Treated adolescents showed significant reductions in PTSD, depression and grief

symptoms compared to a control group of adolescents who had only received part of the

therapy program.

These results, while very preliminary, are promising and are consistent with other

outcome studies of treatment of children after traumas such as fires, gunshot wounds,

motor vehicle accidents, sexual abuse, and community violence (e.g. March et al., 1998;

Cohen & Mannarino, 1996; Saltzman et al., 2001). A great deal more research is needed,

however, to establish evidence-based interventions for children and adolescents after

mass violence and complex humanitarian emergencies.

88
It should be noted that the majority of child and adolescent psychological treatment

approaches have not been evaluated. CBT is a very popular form of psychotherapy and

so has been most researched, but other approaches may also prove to be effective

(Kazdin, 2003). Two other forms of intervention have been evaluated and found not to

be reliably effective: a) there is no evidence that early, mandatory debriefings (where

survivors of a traumatic event are brought together soon after the event and asked to

recall the details of the trauma and discuss their emotional reactions) reduce risks of later

post-traumatic stress disorder or related adjustment difficulties; and b) there is no

evidence that Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR) as an early

mental health intervention following mass violence and disasters, is a treatment of choice

for children and adolescents over any other approach (NIMH, 2002). Based on the

current state of research, early, brief, and focused CBT would be the recommended form

of therapy for children and adolescents in post-conflict settings.

CONCLUSION

Children and adolescents are among the most vulnerable members of communities

affected by wars, terrorism, complex humanitarian emergencies and mass violence. The

physical and emotional consequences of experiencing or witnessing violence can

continue long after the initial event and affect many children who are not in the

immediate vicinity at the time of the event. Ill and injured children react differently than

adults to stress, and their psychological vulnerabilities in the aftermath of disasters and

emergencies are still only imperfectly understood. On every level - physical, medical,

psychological, emotional and social - children have unique needs and vulnerabilities that

must be taken into account when designing mental health interventions in post-conflict

89
settings (LaGreca et al., 2003; Mollica et al., in press; NACCT, 2003; NPDPRCM, 2003;

Pfefferbaum, 1997; Pynoos et al., 1998; Yule, 2001).

The best available evidence suggests that many children and adolescents may display

acute stress symptoms in the immediate aftermath of disasters and emergencies, but that

this does not predict the development of subsequent serious psychopathology. Resilience

is facilitated by psychological first aid - meeting survival needs such as safety, food and

rest, keeping families intact, good parenting, returning to daily routines and

reestablishing opportunities of play and go to school. For those children and adolescents

who do experience extreme or prolonged effects of trauma, the available data suggests

that early, brief, and focused cognitive behavioral treatment approaches (CBT) have the

strongest empirical evidence for reducing post-traumatic symptoms.

Ultimately, interventions for individual children and families are necessary but not

sufficient to help restore post-conflict societies to normal functioning. A broad model of

public mental health care for children and families affected by wars and mass violence is

needed (Pynoos et al,, 1998; Laor et al., 2003). The larger, societal stresses and

difficulties that can affect communities recovering from complex humanitarian

emergencies and mass violence ñ lack of social support, poverty, disruptions of family,

education and social life, domestic violence, substance abuse, displacement,

unemployment, crime and sexual exploitation - can all contribute to prolonged post-

traumatic distress in children and adolescents. A further potential risk factor is the

development of an intergenerational cycle of violence: studies have shown that children

and adolescents who have witnessed and been victims of community and domestic

90
violence are more likely to become perpetrators of violence than those who were not

exposed (Shakoor and Chalmers, l991). It is only through long-term community-based

strategies for providing psychosocial assistance to children and families that society as a

whole will ultimately be able to ensure the futures of children exposed to wars and other

mass traumas.

91
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Groves, B. M. (1999) Mental health services for children who witness domestic violence.
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 CHAPTER 5

TRADITIONAL HEALING IN CONFLICT / POST-CONFLICT SOCIETIES.

Seggane Musisi, MD and Pratiwi Sudarmono, MD

ABSTRACT

Approximately 50 countries in the World today are affected by massive conflict/post

conflicts physical and mental health problems. Furthermore over 75% of the worldís
population is emotionally and culturally tied to indigenous systems of health care
including mental health care (traditional healers). In the West, complimentary alternative
medicine has become increasingly popular. Societal beliefs (culture) attitudes and
responses influence peopleís health seeking behavior including mental health care.
Furthermore, in most conflict/post conflict countries, thereís a paucity of Western trained
medical practitioners. In conflict / post-conflict societies, the mentally affected are part
and parcel of their massively traumatized community together with their traditional
healers and with whom they share their same environment, beliefs, fears, hopes, faiths,
culture, resources and finally their destiny.

Considerable scientific evidence shows that universal physiologic processes as seen in

trauma victims present with differing idiomatic, somatic and behavioral expressions of
distress specific to particular cultures thus giving popularity to the term post-traumatic
culture-bound syndromes, e.g. Nervios in Latin America, Dissociation and Possession
states in Africa or Wind Illness in Asia. Cultural understanding of these illnesses of
distress as happens in conflict/post conflict communities is crucial for their holistic
management. Traditional healing has been defined as that ìsum total of knowledge and
practices, whether rational or not, used in the diagnosis, elimination and prevention of
physical, mental or social imbalance and which relies mostly on practical experience,
observation or knowledge handed down from generation to generation verbally, by
apprenticeship or in writingî.

This chapter presents a discussion of the cultural link between a prototypical universal
illness of distress, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), which is variously expressed in
various cultural setting thus calling for its holistic management. This calls for culturally
competent approaches to treatment alongside Western medicines especially when dealing
with massively traumatised populations where issues of social, cultural, religious and
family variables are concerned.

INTRODUCTION

Approximately 50 countries in the world are today affected by conflict/post-conflict

health problems: (1). Most of these are in developing countries (2). There is

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overwhelming evidence showing that mass trauma in conflict/post-conflict societies is

associated with considerable mental health problems (2). Furthermore, literature shows

that over æ of the worldís population is emotionally and culturally tied to indigenous

systems of health care and this also includes the care for the mentally ill (3). In Africa

and Asia alone, over 80% of the mentally ill seek resort from traditional healers (3).

Indeed traditional healing exists side by side with Western medicine in these countries. In

the Western countries themselves alternative medicine has become increasingly popular

in the last twenty years (3). It is also well established that societal beliefs (culture),

attitudes and responses influence peopleís ideas about mental illness and their subsequent

health seeking behavior. In most developing countries the psychiatrist to patient ratio is

1:1,000,000 or more and yet the traditional healer to patient ratio is 1:50,000 or less (3).

Thus in terms of accessibility, traditional healers are far more prevalent and accessible to

the population than Western trained medical doctors. Even when one considers all mental

health professionals put together (psychiatrists, psychologists, nurses, social workers,

occupational therapists, counselors etc), traditional healers are still the main source of

care in 80% of cases either by peopleís choice, preference of by their sheer availability

and accessibility (3).

Traditional healing has been defined as ìThe sum total of all knowledge and practices,

whether rational or not used in the diagnosis, prevention and elimination of physical,

mental or social imbalance, and relies mostly on practical experience, observations or

knowledge handed down from generation to generation verbally, by apprenticeship or in

writingî (4). In conflict/post-conflict societies, mentally affected people are part and

parcel of their massively traumatized community together with their traditional healers

95
who live amongst them and with whom they share their same environment, beliefs, fears,

hopes, faiths, culture and any available resources including their destiny. In a primary

health care approach, therefore, traditional healers must be part and parcel of the

integrated approach to mental health care delivery in a very cost-effective and efficient

manner.

This chapter will examine ways of how best to incorporate and utilize traditional healing

systems for mental health care in the complex health emergencies of conflict/post-

conflict societies and to identify research areas that need to be addressed.

SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE FOR TRADITIONAL HEALING IN COMPLEX

HUMANITARIAN EMERGENCIES

Studies done in Africa, Asia and among Native American Indians (in both South and

North America) have repeatedly shown traditional healing to be effective in treating

many common forms of mental illness (2,3,4). Kleiman and Sung (1979) investigated

Chinese traditional healing practices in Taiwan by local shamans, tang-ki, and concluded

that most patients (90%) presented with ëchronic-self limited illnesses and masked minor

psychological disorders with 50% of the latter presenting as somatizations (5). Most

reported improvement after the tang-ki treatment.

The major determinants of the outcome were:

(i) Quality of therapist-client communication.

(ii) Compliance to and satisfaction with (belief in) the treatment.

(iii) Care of the clients in their own community, culture and language.

They concluded that for healing to occur, medical care cannot be in the abstract but must

be anchored in a particular social and cultural context. This provides for the balance

96
between ìcontrol of sickness and provision of meaning to the experience of illness.î

These universal therapeutic components of psychotherapy have been noted to be present

and recognizably effective in both traditional and modern treatments thus favoring the

argument that indigenous forms of psychotherapy treat certain psychological and

physiological diseases (5). Todayís evidence of the psychic ameliorative effects of

meditation, yoga, biofeedback, relaxation therapy, exercise and a wide variety of

behavior therapies on psychological dysfunction all favor a rendering of meaning to care

as a most important aspect of well-being. Traditional forms of practice lead to ëhealingí

and do not just limit themselves to ëcureí of illness. This adds ëhuman value, cultural

balance, peace and meaning to life and existenceí in the care of patients. These factors

are central to affecting mental health healing and stability to the massively traumatized

individuals as found in the complex humanitarian emergencies of conflict/post-conflict

societies.

Various studies in Thailand and Cambodia have attested to the need and use of traditional

healing systems in dealing with the mental problems of massively war-traumatized

populations (5,6,7). Van De Put and Eisenbruch (2000) studied Cambodian war-

survivors of the Khmer Rouge ëkilling fieldsí (6). They concluded thus: ìTraditional

beliefs and traditional healers of many kinds were essential in offering people at least a

thread of continuous identity in the massive turmoil that threatened their existence and

cultureî(6). They felt that any intervention aimed at alleviating the psychological

suffering of the war-traumatized peoples needed to be complimentary to or at an absolute

minimum be informed about the work of the Traditional healers. Mollica et al (1994)

came to the same conclusions (7).

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In Africa Musisi et al (2000, 2002) also found that many war-traumatized individuals

resorted to traditional and faith healing practices to deal with their massive psychological

problems (13, 14). As shown in Table 1 below, more than half of the respondents in a

war- traumatized population in Northern Uganda sought healing from their Traditional

healers (14).

TABLE I : Health Seeking Behavior in Awer IDP Camp, Gulu, Uganda.

Service Sought Number (N=2256) Percentage (%)

Traditional Healer 1168 52

Faith Healer 49 2.2

Medical Clinic 425 18.8

Hospital 199 8.8

Mental Health Clinic 86 3.8

None 329 14.6

Workers in Latin America described the beneficial role of traditional healers including

the curanderos in helping the massively traumatized local Indigenous Indian populations

e.g. during the plantation, conflict and hurricane displacements (2).

The questions that are often asked are:

(i) Why do people prefer traditional healing even when modern care is

available?

(ii) Do traditional healing Systems really work and if they do, how?

98
 (iii) How could traditional healing Systems be used in the complex humanitarian

emergencies of conflict/post-conflict societies?

In dealing with the above complex questions, some workers have questioned the validity

of universalizing Western concepts of suffering to other cultures. Bracken (2001) argued

that PTSD is a peculiar construct of life in contemporary post-modern societies of the

West and denied its universal application to other non-western cultures (8). On the other

hand various workers have described a core set of symptoms found in all cultures and

societies as constituting the core syndrome of PTSD as described in the American

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, DSM- IV (9). Moreover

numerous historical reviews have always referred PTSD but by various names e.g. shell

shock, soldiers heart etc. Oíbrien (1998) has claimed that, ìPTSD is merely the

renaming or synthesis of an age old condition.î Whatever the arguments, all agree on the

varied expression of psychological distress in different cultural settings thus giving rise to

the notion of ëPost-traumatic culture-bound syndromesí (10)

The central themes in all these various cultural healing systems in the face of mass

trauma was:

(i) respect for human life

(ii) recognition of what constitutes a good and meaningful life

(iii) the notion of personal dignity.

Mass trauma denigrates all the above 3 concepts. Yet, for any healing to take place in

conflict/post-conflict communities, one must pay respect to the specific cultural

meanings of those three notions hence the importance and centrality of traditional healing

99
systems in war trauma. It is through cultural traditions that man values human life,

constructs the meaning of life and respects personal and othersí dignity.

HARMONISING SCIENCE AND CULTURAL EXPERIENCES IN

TRAUMATISED INDIVIDUALS

There has been considerable work geared to harmonizing the vast scientific evidence

pointing to the universal physiologic processes seen in trauma victims and yet presenting

with differing idiomatic expressions of distress specific to particular cultures as the so

called post-traumatic culture-bound syndromes (10).

This often causes confusion, when the affected victims migrate out of their homelands to

especially Western Industrialized societies, e.g. the ataques de nervios of Latin

Americans in USA and Canada (2). Boehnlein (2001) describes the ëcultural

interpretations of physiological processes in PTSD and panic disordersí (11). He argues

that ìlistening simultaneously to the literal (spoken) language, knowing cultural

metaphors and observing somatic (body) language leads to a more comprehensive

understanding of human suffering in the psychiatric care of the traumatized. Thus

ethnographic observations, consultation with traditional healers when integrated with

modern clinical skills produced a better understanding and care of the traumatized

patients. Thus, in Cambodia, kyol goeu, or wind illness becomes a prototype PTSD in

traumatized victims. In Africa, Van Duyl (12) and Musisi et al. (13) observed various

somatoform disorders, dissociation, hysteria and possession states in traumatized

internally displaced persons (IDPs) refugee camps in Uganda in what would otherwise be

classic PTSD syndromes. This cultural link between a prototypical illness which is

variously expressed and the physiologic experience which is universal argues well for a

better understanding of PTSD in the massively traumatized in different cultural settings

100
and points to a need to develop culturally competent approaches to treatment of victims

of complex humanitarian emergencies in different cultural settings. Such understanding

calls for the inclusion of traditional healing alongside Western medicine when dealing

with traumatized populations especially where issues of social, cultural, religious and

family variables are concerned. Thus in summary, culture influences not only the patient

him/herself, but also the patientís family, social environment and his/her intimate

sensations and interpretations of physical bodily functions and experiences during times

of great psychological distress as is commonly seen in the massively traumatized. This

also applies to the experience of the effects of drugs and their side effects.

METHODS OF WORKING OF TRADITIONAL HEALERS

WHO has characterised traditional medicine as ìthose diverse health practices,

approaches, knowledge and beliefs incorporating plant, animal and /or mineral based

medicines, spiritual therapies, manual techniques and exercises applied singularly or in

combination to maintain the well-being of the patient as well as to diagnose, treat or

prevent illnessî (3). Traditional healers, therefore, use all kinds of techniques to effect

healing. Abbo (2003) in Uganda classified these into 4 as follows:

(i) Phytotherapy and other medicaments (Herbal/plant, organic-animal and non-

organic remedies: taken orally, smoked, inhaled or applied topically)

(ii) Talking Therapies (Psychotherapies and Counseling)

(iii) Behavioral modification therapies (symbolisms, rituals, drama: song, drum &

dance, and interactive group therapies)

(iv) Spiritual (faith) healing (including spirit consultations, prayer & possession

states and/or carrying/wearing protective artifacts).

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In conflict/post-conflict communities traditional healers have been found useful in the

following:

(i) To mobilize the people into or for particular actions;

(ii) To provide meaning to the experiences of traumatized victims, e.g. dissociation

& possession states in Africa or ataques de nervios in Latin America, or Kyul-

goeu in Cambodia, etc.;

(iii) To treat common psychological discomforts e.g. anxiety, panic, depression or

demoralization;

(iv) Case identification, management and referral of more complex cases;

(v) To resolve interpersonal conflicts especially in traumatized families;

(vi) To instill values, norms and morality where there have been destroyed by the

traumatic social disintegration of war or conflict, e.g., destroyed neighborhoods,

wayward teenagers in IDP camps, rampart sexual abuse of women in war- torn

areas etc.;

(vii) To restore a sense of identity and cultural continuity where these have been

broken by conflict e.g. broken families, orphaned children, the widowed etc;

(viii) To create a sense of hope and faith as is in spiritual (faith) healing in seemingly

hopeless situations;

(ix) To restore dignity to the wronged, pay respect to the dead, implore justice for all

and cleanse desecrations;

(x) To enhance tolerance, understanding and patience and to avoid the vicious

cycles of trans-generational traumatizations and hatreds. For example, traditional

rulers using Traditional Healers have waged or stopped waging wars in so called

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 culturally justified wars, e.g. the Mau Mau and Maji-Maji armed rebellions in

East Africa against colonialists;

METHODS OF INCORPORATING TRADITIONAL HEALING SYSTEMS IN

THE MENTAL HEALTH CARE OF CONFLICT/POST-CONFLICT
COMMUNITIES

Up-to now there is no universally agreed upon method of incorporating traditional

healing systems in complex humanitarian emergencies although their importance is

universally acknowledged. This is an area in need of much systematic scientific research.

Nevertheless, the following principles need to be observed:

(i) The cultures and beliefs of the traumatized peoples must be respected;

(ii) Existing knowledge of healing must be acknowledged, respected and

incorporated as appropriate;

(iii) Universal respect to human life, values and dignity must be observed;

(iv) There must be adherence to the principle of universal human rights and respect

for all irrespective of gender, race, ethnicity or religion;

(v) Practices that are traditionally discriminative must be discouraged e.g. class,

caste, racial, gender, tribal or religious prejudices;

(vi) The medical, social , security, food, housing and spiritual needs of the

traumatized community must be catered for in a culturally accepted way;

(vii) Traditional healing systems need to be incorporated early and at primary health

care level alongside other treatments and with no associated stigmatizing labels.

103
In order to successfully incorporate traditional healing systems in the complex

humanitarian emergencies of conflict/post-conflict communities, baseline surveys to

establish and address the following need to be done:

(i) The cultural practices and beliefs of the affected society

(ii) The nature of the problems involved

(iii) The magnitude if the problems

(iv) The traditional knowledge and mechanisms of dealing with the problems

(v) The resources available in terms of personnel, knowledge, expertise and

materials

(vi) The useful and beneficial traditional practices to be incorporated

(vii) Possible harmful practices to either modify them to usefulness or discourage

them

(viii) Innocent /neutral practices to be left done

(ix) Identification of culturally competent (modern) clinical practitioners to work

with the traditional healers

The following figure summarizes the vicious cycles operative in conflict/post-conflict

societies, the recommended action plan passed on the current scientific knowledge and

the top research areas that need to be explored in regard to the role of traditional healing

in complex humanitarian emergencies.

104
 Fig. 1: The vicious cycles of events affecting mental health in
conflict/post-conflict society

NORMAL PEACEFUL SOCIETY

- Socio-economic Activity
- Intact Traditions & Healing Practices
- Social Capital

Positive
Cycle

CONFLICT SOCIETY SOCIETY IN RECOVERY

- Mass trauma
- No/ or erratic systems of - Active Mental Health Policy & Programs
health care - Recovered Mental and Public Health
- Chaos (public disorder) - Social order
- Traditional practices alongside modern

Negative
Cycle Recovery
Cycle

MENTAL DISABILITY

- Mental Health Impairments ACTION PLAN & RESEARCH

- Trans-generational effects -Research in Traditional systems
- Public Health breakdown - Mental Health Policy / care
- Capital flight - Best practices, Peace and
- Conflict resolution

105
In a normal peaceful society, there are intact healing systems and traditions as well as

public order and respect for human rights and good economic activities. Mass trauma

destroys all that and creates a situation of chaos, public disorder, absence of governance

and destroyed health care systems with no respect to human rights or life. The result is a

negative cycle of massive mental health and social impairments as well as Public health

breakdown and capital flight. Such a situation perpetuates trans-generational effects of

trauma including poverty, disease and future mass trauma. To change this, a recovery

cycle needs to be activated and this needs a recovery Action Plan of Best Practices to

include the restoration of healing systems that take into consideration local

circumstances, culture, knowledge and practices. This calls for the incorporation of

traditional healers into the planned interventions, which must be formulated into the new

post-conflict health policy to be followed by appropriate legislation. How best to

incorporate traditional healers into the newly planned post-conflict mental and public

heath system should be based on country specific research taking into account the current

practice and the social-cultural realities of that particular society (Please see section on

future research below). The recovery action plan then should translate into a society in

recovery with social order, revived integrated health care (including mental health care)

systems, good governance and respect for human rights. These then drive society into a

positive cycle with intact traditions and health practices, revived economic activities and

a return of social capital and social order with good governance and respect of human

rights.

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FUTURE RESEARCH

Traditional healing systems (THS) have been marginalized in many countries of the

world today. However they persist side by side with modern Western medicine. There is

need to incorporate THS in modern health care. Currently there are three systems of

Health Care approaches in use in the world today (15).

These are:

(i) The Integrative System: Here traditional medicine is fully

recognized and incorporated in the national health care system

(ii) The Inclusive System: Here traditional medicine is recognized but

not incorporated in the national health care system.

(iii) The Tolerant System: Here national health care system is entirely

allopathic but some traditional health care is allowed though not

officially recognized.

In this chapter, the Integrative System is the ideal one we recommend. However, most

countries practice the Tolerant System. In order to achieve the ideal Integrative System,

the following research areas need to be undertaken:

(i) Research into Herbal Medicines (Phytotherapy) and other traditional remedies

e.g. minerals, oils, etc. This should address the following:

(a) The efficacy

(b) The appropriate dose regimen and duration of treatment

(c) Their toxicity (phytoxicity)

(d) When and how to ìpickî them and apply them e.g. flowers, leaves, roots

or stems; and their applications, e.g. as steams, inhalation or liquids for

bathing/drinking etc.

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(ii) Research into the ìHealing aspectî, that is, relief of suffering and cure, of

traditional medicine e.g. mysticism, spiritualism, belief/faith, rituals, drama,

observations, taboos, behaviors etc.

(iii) Research into the:

(a) Beneficial practices and how to enhance them.

(b) Harmful practices and how to stop these.

(c) Innocent practices and how to leave them alone. Often these are part of

cultural symbols e.g. certain forms of dress, amulets, music etc.

(iv) Research in ways of how to incorporate THS into modern mental health care

as part of primary health care and achieve an integrative health care system.

This has to be done specific to each particular country/society as it is bound to

differ from country to country.

108
REFERENCES
1.
Mollica R. McDonald L (2003): Project 1 Billion ñHealth Ministers of Post-
Conflict Nations on Mental Health Recovery UN Chronicle Vol. 56 No. 4.
www.un.org/chronicle.
2.
Desjarles R, Eisenberg L. Good B. and Kleiman A.(1995)

3. World Mental Health : Problems and Priorities In Low ñ Income countries.

Oxford University Press, Oxford , NY. 1995.

4. World Mental Health Report, 2001: Mental Health.

5. New Understanding, New Hope. WHO, Geneva, Switzerland.

6. Abbo C. (2003): Management of Mental Health Problems by Traditional Healers

as Seen in Kampala, Uganda. A Master of Medicine (Psychiatry) dissertation
thesis for Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda.

7. Kleiman A, Sung L H. (1979): Why do Indigenous Practitioners Successfully

Heal? Social Science and Medicine Vol. 13B. pp 7-26.
8.
Van De Put WACM and Eisenbruch M (2000): The Cambodian Experience. In
Trauma, War and Violence: Public Mental Health in a Social-Cultural Context.
Edited by Joop De Jong. P. 93 ñ 155. Klumer Academic. Plenum Publishers, NU
2001.

9. Mollica R (1994). South East Asian Refugees: Migration History and Mental
Health Issues. In A J Marssella, T. Borneman, S. Ekblad and J. Orley (Ed.).
Amidst Peril and Pain: The Mental Health and Well-being of the Worldís
Refugees (83-100). Washington D.C. American Psychological Association.

10. Bracken P. J. (2001). Post ñmodernity and Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder.

Social Science and Medicine 53 (2001) 733-743

11. Diagnosis and statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th Edition (DSM-IV).
American Psychiatric Association, Washington DC. 1994

12. Stamm B H and Friedman M .J (2000). Cultural Diversity in the Appraisal and
Expression of Trauma. In International Hand of Human Response to Trauma by
Shalev, Yehuda and McFarlane (Ed). Klumer Academic / Plenum Publishers NY
2000.

13. Boehnlein J. K (2001): Cultural Interpretations of Physiologic Processes in Post ñ

Traumatic Stress Disorder and Panic Disorder. Trans-cultural Psychiatry Vol.
38(4):461-467.

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14. Van Duyl M, (2000): Hysteria and Possession ñ Exploring Dissociative Disorders
in South West Uganda: Evidence of Traumatisation. Proceedings of the 2nd WPA
Eastern African Annual Regional Psychiatric Conference, Kampala, Uganda.
March 26 ñ 28th 2000.

15. Musisi S., Kinyanda E. Liebling H., et al (2000): Post Traumatic Torture
Disorders in Uganda. A 3-year retrospective study of case records at a specialised
torture treatment center, Kampala, Uganda.Torture Vol. 10 No. 3.

16. Musisi S (2002). : Mental Health Problems of Mass Trauma in Africa : A study
of Three Countries Which Experienced War Conflict. Proceeds of the Fulbright
New Century Scholars symposium, PanAmerican Health Organisation (PAHO),
Washington DC, Nov. 2002.

17. WHO (2002): WHO Policy Perspectives On Medicines- Traditional Medicine-

Growing Needs and Potential. No 2, May 2002, Geneva.

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 CHAPTER 6

SCIENCE-BASED MENTAL HEALTH SERVICES: PSYCHOSOCIAL

PROGRAMS

Alastair Ager, BA, MSc, PhD, AFBPsS and Maryanne Loughry, PhD

ABSTRACT

Mental health issues should be understood within the broader context of the psychosocial
well-being of post-conflict societies. Such well-being is influenced by many factors. A
framework developed by the Psychosocial Working Group suggests that resources
available in three key domains significantly impact the psychosocial well-being of
communities. These domains of human capacity, social ecology and culture and values
are outlined. Conflict degrades the resources available to communities in each of these
domains, and intervention is appropriately targeted at assisting engagement with
difficulties by increasing such resources. The basis of ëbest practiceí interventions is
outlined, with key principles for effective intervention identified. Key actions for
promoting psychosocial well-being are identified, as well as key research areas for
developing the evidence-base for such interventions.

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MENTAL HEALTH AND BROADER

PSYCHOSOCIAL WELL-BEING

The increased involvement of civilians in war is evident from our television screens,

newspapers and first hand experience. In the last decade civil conflicts in Rwanda, the

former Yugoslavia, East Timor, Liberia, Israel and the Palestinian Territories, the hidden

wars in Uganda and Sudan, as well as the televised wars in Afghanistan and Iraq, have

increasingly been brought to the attention of the general public through images of

brutality and suffering. The International Committee for the Red Cross (ICRC) now

estimate that 10 civilians die for every soldier or fighter killed in battle (2001).

Following the Indochinese war, and the subsequent refugee exodus, researchers

investigated the psychiatric and social needs of refugees while in camps and later in their

countries of resettlement. In the early 1990s, many of these researchers led the

111
exploration of the diagnosis post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) as a framework for the

conceptualisation of the experiences of refugees. Little research was conducted in

countries in the midst of conflict because of the difficulty accessing the affected

population and associated ethical considerations. This situation changed with the conflict

in the former Yugoslavia. Local mental health workers were caught up in the midst of the

conflict and from situations of siege and assistance were able to research and document

the conflict ëfirst handí (Ajdukovic & Ajdukovic, 1993). Predominantly, this research

continued to focus on the symptoms of psychological distress resulting from the distress

and traumatic experiences of war. However, a critique was starting to develop that

questioned whether PTSD and its related symptom otology was an adequate account for

the personal and social experience of misery, humiliation, sorrow and social uprooting

that characterized such wars as the Balkan conflict. This has led to an increasing

emphasis on the importance of such a clinical conceptualisation as PTSD (or, indeed, any

other psychiatric condition) being seen in the much broader context of communities

within which the social and cultural fabric ñ as well as the individual psyche - has been

disrupted.

The close inter-dependence of mental health issues with the wider personal, social and

cultural circumstances of communities recovering from conflict is now widely accepted.

Mental health interventions may thus be appropriately framed within the broader context

of ëpsychosocialí programs. Alternatively, community-based psychosocial programs may

be encouraged to address local mental health issues. Either way, there is no clear dividing

line between mental health interventions and those addressing the broader psychosocial

well-being of communities.

112
Psychosocial interventions can be defined as actions that seek to address the interplay of

social conditions and psychological well-being. With such a broad definition, a very

diverse range of interventions is delivered under the ëpsychosocialí banner. This, in itself,

is a confusing state of affairs. Most significantly, however, such diversity presents

difficulties for the development of a firm evidence-based for such interventions. If there

is a lack of consensus on the goals of psychosocial interventions, there is little hope for

the development of a consensual evidence-base to guide best practice.

For this reason, the Psychosocial Working Group (PWG) was established in 2000,

comprising five major humanitarian agencies and five leading academic groups involved

in the planning, delivery and evaluation of psychosocial interventions in situations of

conflict and post conflict. Representing something of the diversity of programming

approaches in the field, the group was charged with developing a conceptual framework

for psychosocial intervention with respect to which an evidence-base for best practice

could be established (Ager, 2003; PWG, 2003).

A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK FOR PSYCHOSOCIAL INTERVENTION

The Impact of Events and Conditions

The proposed framework begins with the assumption that in post-conflict settings the

needs of individuals are appropriately conceptualized within the context of a family or

household which, in turn, is located within an ëaffected communityí. The ëeventsí

experienced by the community may include direct exposure to military conflict,

disruption of livelihoods, population displacement etc. The nature of these events is very

diverse, and they often contribute to broader conditions that continue to impact the

113
community over many years. The common feature of such events and conditions is that

they challenge the community and its members by disrupting or diminishing the

resources of that community. Such challenges typically involve physical, material and

economic losses. They also potentially erode psychosocial well-being.

Psychosocial Well-Being

The term psychosocial well-being has come to be preferred to narrower concepts such as

mental health by humanitarian agencies to the extent that it points explicitly to social and

cultural (as well as psychological) influences on well-being. The psychosocial well-being

of an individual is here defined with respect to three core domains: human capacity,

social ecology and culture & values. These domains consider respectively the human,

social and cultural capital available to people responding to the challenges of prevailing

events and conditions. Human capacity is fundamentally constituted by the health

(physical and mental) and knowledge and skills of an individual. In these terms,

improving physical and mental health, or education and training in support of increased

knowledge, enhances human capacity and thus psychosocial well-being. While the

importance of mental health and, particularly in work with children and adolescents,

development of skills are widely accepted as a contribution to psychosocial well-being,

social connection and support has increasingly been seen as an important complementary

dimension of experience. There is strong empirical evidence linking mental health

outcomes to the presence of effective social engagement, but wider cultural and

programmatic concerns also justify the specification of social ecology as a discrete

domain underpinning psychosocial well-being. Thirdly, the culture and values of a

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community ñ traditions, practices, bases of local identity and belonging ñ also represent

key resources underpinning psychosocial well-being.

Challenges to Psychosocial Wellbeing

Depression, social withdrawal, physical disability, and loss of skilled labor all serve to

degrade available human capacity, as do less tangible impacts such as a reduced sense of

control over events and circumstances. Events and conditions also frequently lead to

wide disruption of the social ecology of a community, involving social relations within

families, peer groups, religious and cultural institutions, links with civic and political

authorities etc. Targeted disruption of such structures and networks is often the central

focus of contemporary political and military conflict. Impacts on the social ecology of an

affected community frequently include changes in power relations between ethnic groups

and shifts in gender relations. Events and conditions may also disrupt the culture and

values of a community, challenging human rights, cultural values and mores etc. Conflict

can threaten cultural traditions of meaning that have served to unite and give identity to a

community. Conflict can also serve to reinforce hardened images of other political or

ethnic groups, encouraging escalation of violence and hatred.

Psychosocial well-being ñ of both individuals and of the communities of which they are

members ñ is thus seen to be dependent upon the capacity to deploy resources from these

three core domains in response to the challenge of experienced events and conditions.

While psychosocial well-being is appropriately defined with respect to these three core

domains, other issues clearly have a significant influence on such well-being. The loss of

physical and economic resources available to households, disruption to community and

115
regional infrastructure, and degradation of the natural environment all plausibly have

impact on the psychosocial well-being of communities. Such issues define the broader

context within which individuals, families and communities seek to protect psychosocial

well-being.

Available Resources

As noted, the resources of each of these three domains can be seen to be eroded by the

experience of conflict. Importantly, however, each domain also represents a pool of

resources that can be mobilized to respond to the demands of the post-conflict setting. All

affected communities respond to and engage with the disruption caused by conflict. In

terms of this conceptual model, this engagement involves interaction between the various

domains highlighted. Social networks are utilized to protect significant cultural activities.

Human capacity is invested in restoring social linkage. Culture and values are drawn

upon to bolster human capacity and well-being. The effectiveness of this engagement and

the utilization of resources within the community may be seen to be a measure of the

ëresilienceí of that community.

It is tempting to think of this process of engagement as one with the goal of ërestorationí

of the situation existing before the impact of events, a perspective emphasized by a

number of authors. However, experience in such settings as Rwanda and East Timor,

where elements of a pre-conflict situation have contributed directly to the onset of

violence, suggest that it in some circumstances it may be more appropriate to recognize

this process as one of ëtransformationí, involving development of new relationships

between the capacities, linkages, values and resources of a community. Such

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transformation is a process rather than a single event. Adjustments in human capacity,

social ecology, and values may shift over many, many years.

Whenever external resources are considered necessary to support the engagement of an

affected community with the challenges it faces, the framework identifies programmatic

intervention developing in response to the interaction of that community and an ëexternal

communityí of governmental and non-governmental agencies. Effective programmatic

response is heavily reliant upon the effectiveness of this interaction between the affected

and ëexternalí communities. Events and conditions also impact the functions of this

external community (e.g. security situation influencing program implementation) as well

as the ëaffectedí community. While this external community offers potential support

through the deployment of additional human capacity (and, generally, physical

resources), its operation is also influenced by its own (often complex) social ecology, and

by the culture and values of its agencies. The domains of human capacity, social ecology

and culture & values are thus helpful for understanding the process of engagement of the

external community with the affected community, as well as of the affected community

with prevailing events and conditions.

DEFINING PSYCHOSOCIAL INTERVENTIONS

The framework suggests that post-conflict psychosocial interventions can be defined as

actions that support the engagement of individuals, families and communities with the

demands of post-conflict settings by strengthening the human, social and cultural capital

available to them. In practical terms, the PWG sees psychosocial interventions as actions

that typically:

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• alleviate human suffering by mitigating the effects of violence on human

development and capacity,

• provide protection to those especially vulnerable to the impacts of conflict, and/or

• promote community healing and reconciliation (reducing conflict and increasing

economic and social development).

Developing Best Practice for Psychosocial Intervention

What is best practice for such interventions? The framework suggests a number of

domains within the affected community with respect to which interventions might be

targeted (e.g. human rights initiatives with respect to the domain of culture and values;

mental health programs targeting enhancement of health and well-being within the

domain of human capacity; restoration of social linkage to support the socialization of

children). These suggest a number of alternative routes to impacting the psychosocial

well-being of a community and its members. Research on the concept of resilience (e.g.

Haggerty et al. 1994) has, until recently, provided the major evidence-base for such

interventions. Resilience refers to the capability of individuals or communities to

withstand demanding circumstances. Broadly, the research literature on resilience points

to the resources ñ which, in terms of the framework, can be grouped in terms of human

capacity, social ecology and culture and values ñ that help mitigate against the impact of

conflict, stress and loss.

Best practice in interventions that develop such resources ñ and those promote resilience

ñ is very much centered around the process of identifying needs, and supporting local

processes of engagement, rather than producing resources that are not relevant to local

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coping strategies. Analysis of case studies (PWG, 2003) very much indicates that

ineffective interventions tend to be those where what is provided is not sufficiently

related to local agendas, capacities and strategies. The PWG has thus identified ten

programming considerations that define best practice in psychosocial intervention. These

are: (1) effective preparations; (2) adoption of a critical perspective on potential impact;

(3) valid assessment; (4) active local participation; (5) commitment to capacity building;

(6) an orientation to peace-building and social justice; (7) prioritization of human rights

and protection issues; (8) evaluation and knowledge improvement; (9) training; and (10)

sensitivity to the linkages between individual, household and community across different

cultural settings (see PWG, 2004 for full details).

The Emerging Evidence-Base for Psychosocial Intervention

Such best practice is increasingly being informed by focused research effort related to the

PWG framework. The PWG has defined a research agenda, which sees the key tasks for

developing the evidence-based for psychosocial intervention as the following:

• documenting (with respect to the proposed framework) the emphases of current

psychosocial programming;

• identifying appropriate assessment measures of need in each of the domains

identified;

• evaluating outcomes of particular intervention approaches (on non-targeted as well as

targeted domains);

• examining the utilization of relevant knowledge by agencies in framing interventions;

and

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• considering the experience of program beneficiaries with respect to the core domains

charted by the framework.

There are now a number of studies which have addressed ñ or are addressing ñ elements

of this agenda, including a series of collaborative studies commissioned by the PWG.

ACTION PLAN

With the current state of conceptual understanding and evidence-base within the

psychosocial field, the following are key actions that should be considered for

implementation in addressing the needs of post-conflict populations.

Key Potential Actions

1. Restore public, civic and religious institutions that provide social order and
meaning to affected populations.

This will include support for re-establishment of schooling, public markets and civic
routines, as well as fostering the reformation of local religious and other associations.

2. Promote active engagement and participation in activities by all sectors of the

community

This may involve special provision for groups (e.g. youth, women, persons with
disabilities, those in extreme poverty) who may otherwise be unable or ill-equipped to
actively engage in community processes of recovery. Activities need not necessarily
be directed at mental health and psychosocial needs. Often, practical concerns can
more valuably bring people together, and help build confidence and hope.

3. Assess resources of impacted communities alongside assessment of needs

Too often needs are assessed, without an awareness of the strengths and capacities of
affected populations. This sets intervention off ëon the wrong footí, not taking into
consideration the current ways that people are using to deal with their difficulties (and
seeking to bolster these). Assessment should thus address existing coping mechanisms
and strategies, and how these may be supported. This will include resources drawn
upon from the informal and popular sectors, such as religious ceremonies and

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traditional healers.

4. Ensure that mental health promotion activities utilize and strengthen

community linkages

Mental health should not be seen as an individual issue, but once understood ñ and
addressed ñ at the community level. Active use should be made of existing social
groups and networks to identify mental health needs, and mobilize response to them.
These might be womenís groups, sports clubs, religious associations, social clubs ñ
any social group can serve as a basis for effective mental health promotion.

5. Link mental health promotion activities to work on peace-building and human

rights

In many post-conflict settings, human rights protection and peace-building activities

will usefully serve to promote mental health. Connections between such activities
should be actively encouraged.

6. Make training and capacity development key programming activities.

This will include support for means of addressing mental health needs at the
community level, facilitation and participatory skills, psycho-educational inputs and,
where appropriate, knowledge of paths for advice and referral.

7. Commit resources to the evaluation of programs and services.

This will involve equipping people with the skills to learn from experience of what
approaches are most effective in a given cultural context. Participatory evaluation
methods should be used alongside any more quantitative evaluation measure.

PRIORITY RESEARCH AREAS

A research agenda for developing the evidence-base for psychosocial intervention was

identified earlier. With respect to this agenda, key issues in post-conflict settings are

those indicated below.

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Priority Research Areas

1. What measures of well-being are suitable and valid for local use in diverse
cultural settings and for contribution to the development of a global evidence-
base?

Measures are required that are valid for use within a particular locality for the
purposes of identifying needs (and resources) and evaluating outcomes. This can be
difficult when the understanding of well-being so reflects cultural variation. However,
in addition, to lessons from one setting need to be related to the experience of others if
an effective evidence-base guiding action is to be developed. Measures need to reflect
issues relating to the ëculture and valuesí and ësocial ecologyí of a community, in
addition to narrower measure of individual mental health and other human capacity.

2. What methods are most effective for promoting psychosocial well-being?

Evidence is emerging regarding effectiveness (see above) but the evidence ñbase
needs to be significantly strengthened.

3. How can psychosocial programs make best use of the available evidence-base?

This involves considering how evidence is abstracted to define ëbest practiceí, and
how such statements of ëbest practiceí are then effectively translated into program and
service activity. A particularly neglected issue is that of fieldworker supervision ñ
how are those delivering interventions supervised and supported in delivering targeted
interventions?

4. How do beneficiaries experience psychosocial programs?

Current evidence suggests that those involved in receiving psychosocial services

greatly appreciate them. However, in circumstances of significant loss and
deprivation, any form of intervention is likely to be appreciated. More focused work
needs to be done, indicating what aspects of programs ñ e.g. their technical
components, the relationships established with fieldworkers, their participatory focus
etc.- are seen as the most crucial from the perspective of beneficiaries.

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References

1. Ajdukovic, M & Ajdukovic, D (1993) Psychological well-being of refugee

children. Child Abuse and Neglect 17, (6)843-855.

2. Ager, A (2002). Psychosocial Needs in Complex Emergencies. The Lancet, 360,

Supplement.

3. Haggerty, R.J., Sherrod, L.R., Garmezy, N., and Rutter, M. (1994). Stress, risk and
resilience in children and adolescents: processes, mechanisms and interventions.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

4. ICRC (2001) The ICRC and civil-military relations in armed conflict. International
Review of the Red Cross, ICRC, Geneva.

5. PWG (2003). Psychosocial Intervention in Complex Emergencies: A Conceptual

Framework. Edinburgh: QMUC, Edinburgh. Available on-line at
http://www.forcedmigration.org/psychosocial/papers/Conceptual%20Framework.pdf

6. PWG (2004). Considerations in Planning Psychosocial Programmes. Edinburgh:

QMUC, Edinburgh. Available on-line at
http://www.forcedmigration.org/psychosocial/papers/

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 CHAPTER 7

CONSIDERATIONS IN PLANNING MENTAL HEALTH SERVICES IN

CONFLICT-AFFECTED COUNTRIES IN THE DEVELOPING WORLD

Derrick Silove, MD

ABSTRACT

Mental disorders are a source of substantial disability worldwide and this burden is likely
to be greater in countries affected by mass conflict. Resources and skills in those
environments are limited, so that careful consideration needs to be given in determining
service priorities. It is important to recognize that direct clinical services can only reach
a small percentage of the population. Fortunately, most persons recover from common
stress reactions with effective repair of wider social systems. A minority with severe
mental illnesses and those with disabling traumatic stress reactions require direct clinical
care. Community-based mental health services can provide accessible, equitable and
effective care at low cost, thereby avoiding the harm created by institutionalising patients
in large mental hospitals. In creating services, attention needs to be given to training;
mentoring and supervision; to the integration of mental health within the broader primary
health care system; and to coordinating activities across all relevant government and non-
government services. The balance between specialist and primary care-based mental
health services requires careful consideration in each context.

INTRODUCTION

Mental disorders generate substantial disability worldwide with post-conflict countries in

the developing world often bearing a disproportionate proportion of the burden because

of the additional stresses associated with violence and poverty and the absence or

destruction of services for those in need.

In planning services, it is useful to consider two broad categories of mental disorder, the

low prevalence, severe neuropsychiatric disorders and the higher prevalence emotional

disorders such as the more common forms of depression, anxiety and posttraumatic stress

disorder. It should be noted, however, that there is substantial overlap between these two

broad groupings. For example, although severe (melancholic and psychotic) depression

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falls into the first category, with more moderate forms of depression falling into the

second, the distinction between the two types of depression often is blurred with stress

and trauma playing a role in the onset of both forms.

Although severe neuropsychiatric disorders such as psychosis, manic depression, acute

brain syndromes and epilepsy have a relatively low prevalence in all communities

(combined point prevalence of roughly 2-3%), if untreated, they can lead to severe

disability, premature death and disruption to the lives of sufferers, their families and the

wider community. The incidence of these disorders may be higher in countries

experiencing mass conflict because of the increased rates of brain injury, psychological

trauma, dispersal of families, disruption of social support networks, unemployment, and

poverty. In addition, poorly developed or disrupted services and the flight of mental

health professionals may lead to the neglect of existing patients. Social chaos and

population displacement may result in the abandonment, exploitation and abuse of the

severely mentally ill, and families and other careers may be dispersed, killed or

incapacitated.

Mass exposure to violence, conflict and displacement also greatly increase risk to the

higher prevalence disorders such as posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and the more

common forms of depression and anxiety. As will be discussed, these disorders are

particularly prevalent in the early phase of humanitarian emergencies and their

immediate aftermath. Social stresses (living in refugee camps, being in detention

centers) can lead to persistence of these reactions. Careful consideration needs to be

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given, therefore, to how services should be provided to this larger group of stressed

persons, particularly in settings where resources and skills are limited.

SOCIAL RECOVERY

This chapter focuses primarily on issues relating to the development of mental health

services in conflict-affected countries. Nevertheless, it is critical to recognize that for

populations affected by the stress of war, the key to psychosocial stabilization for most

persons is the re-establishment of security and the capacity of communities to recover

socially, culturally and economically. Given the high rates of acute stress reactions

amongst such populations (up to 40%), it is neither feasible nor desirable to offer

individual mental health services such as counseling to all persons in distress.

Fortunately, there is mounting evidence that most persons with acute stress reactions

recover if attention is given to repairing the social environment, the central task of

humanitarian relief efforts working in partnership with emerging local authorities

particularly Ministries of Health.

In the early, emergency phase, the overriding humanitarian objective is to minimize

harm, that is, to provide protection with dignity for the affected population. Security is

not only important to physical safety but also to psychological well-being. I have

proposed an ADAPT model (Adaptation and Development after Persecution and Trauma)

that identifies five domains of social recovery that, if well attended to, encourage natural

psychosocial recovery. These domains relate to broad psychosocial areas that go beyond

providing food, water, shelter and basic health care. The identified domains include the

provision of: (1) security, both physical and psychological; (2) attention to interpersonal

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bonds including reunion of families and the promotion of kinship networks and

community cohesion; (3) creating systems of justice that promote dignity, trust, and a

sense of faith that grievances will be addressed effectively; (4) establishing a framework

for survivors to pursue existing and new roles and identities (family roles, study, work,

social leadership); and (5) re-creating systems of meaning that allow pursuit of political,

social, cultural and spiritual aspirations.

All sectors of government have a role to play in reconstructing these social systems. For

example, in relation to the second domain (repairing ruptured bonds and relationships),

international agencies such as the Red Cross can assist in re-uniting families and

communities; efforts can be made to re-establish cultural and religious processes to

facilitate grieving and remembrance for those lost; widowsí groups can be formed to

provide self-help, emotional and vocational support systems; truth and reconciliation

processes can identify perpetrators and the fate of the deceased; and mental health

services can provide counseling, but only for the minority who are disabled by persisting

and complicated grief reactions. The key issue is that the more effective the

reconstruction effort is in supporting the five adaptive domains at a community-wide

level, the fewer will be those in need of direct mental health services. Put another way,

mental health services should focus only on those persons (the minority) whose grief

reactions persist and are disabling in spite of ongoing repair of these larger social

systems.

CLINICAL SERVICES

Table 1 outlines some key issues in developing mental health services.

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Needs Assessment

Planning in mental health needs to be context-specific but there are some general steps

that need to be taken in all settings. These include: (1) a rough estimate of the prevalence

of mental disorders in each context, information that is obtained by matching data from

international sources with rapid local assessments using qualitative, purposive, sampling

methods, that is, by interviewing key informants; (2) obtaining information about the

availability of community resources and indigenous healing mechanisms; (3) evaluating

existing local professional resources and skills in mental health, the capacity to dedicate

human resources to this area, and the potential for recruiting strategic assistance from

international sources; (4) logistic and material needs (transport, availability of clinics,

drug procurement and distribution); (5) potential interactions with other areas in health

especially in public health, health promotions and maternal-child health; (6) existing or

planned activities of NGOs and other relevant sectors (social services, education,

correctional services, rehabilitation, etc); and (6) levels of awareness and stigma about

mental health throughout the various strata of the society (community, leaders, health

professionals, planners and administrators, international agencies).

Principles of Planning

Key guiding principles in planning services include: (1) Awareness that interventions

need to be affordable, feasible and have clear priorities; (2) Involving communities in the

design and delivery of services; (3) Focusing on human rights issues, the reduction of

stigma and marginalization, and prevention of unnecessary hospitalization or

imprisonment; (4) Encouraging input from those who have good local understandings of

traditional beliefs about mental illness and its management so that, as far as possible,

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imported international methods are integrated into these existing healing systems; (5)

Drawing on existing community strengths including the capacity of the family,

community leaders and traditional healers to provide support and care; (6) Designing

interventions to maximize social and work functioning in the mentally ill and the

promotion of strategies that, as far as possible, integrate the person back into society; and

(6) Ensuring that the service has immediate, measurable benefits while at the same time

building a model that is sustainable and ultimately integrated within broader primary

health service.

Three key areas will be identified for further discussion: (1) the service model, (2) the

scope and focus of interventions, and (3) structural relationships within the health service

and across government and non-government services.

A Community-based service model ñ preserving the family as the unit of

care:

There is an international consensus that mental health services should be located in the

communities they serve. The established principles are that the service needs to be a)

accessible (close to where people live); b) equitable (allowing access by all those in need

irrespective of wealth, influence or location of residence); c) acceptable (the community

must feel that the service is welcoming, culturally sensitive, responsive and interacts with

them in a respectful and dignified way); d) safety conscious, evidence based and offering

good quality care; e) cost-effective; f) logistically practical (that is, issues of transport,

availability of medications and other aspects of infrastructure support can be provided);

and g) accountable in its activities to the local community and to the health authority.

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Involving staff, local leaders, family of the mentally ill and other interested groups in

designing and shaping the service promotes community awareness and a sense of local

ownership. Active community involvement in turn helps to reduce fear, stigma and a

sense of mystery about mental illness and also ensures that services are responsive and

accountable.

Priority emphasis should be given to treating patients in their home environments

wherever possible, thereby avoiding their dislocation of transferring them to distant

mental hospitals. A key principle in developing countries is that the family is the greatest

asset in caring for the mentally ill. Unlike in many technologically developed societies

where mentally disturbed persons often are rejected by the family, traditional families

tend to be more accepting and responsible for their ill family members. It is critical that

mental health services support and promote this sense of responsibility. Once the culture

is changed so that there is an expectation that services will take the mentally ill away, the

principal of communal and family-based care is eroded, and the cost to Ministries of

Health and the government as a whole of taking over the complete care of the mentally ill

becomes unsustainable. The mistakes made by developed countries in that regard need to

be considered very carefully by post-conflict societies in the developing world as they

plan new mental health services.

Mental health promotion activities should include educating the family and wider

community about mental disorders with the aim of destigmatizing sufferers, normalizing

the experience of receiving treatment, giving families a sense of confidence in caring for

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patients and re-integrating affected persons into the community by facilitating their return

to active roles (work, school, child-rearing, etc.).

Community-based mental health services are relatively inexpensive to establish.

Although access to some laboratory investigations is desirable, such facilities are not

essential to assessing and treating most patients, which, unlike in other areas in medicine,

is essentially based on engaging patients and their families, applying sound interviewing

and history-taking skills, detecting behavioural signs and symptoms and forming a

collaborative management plan. The main financial costs incurred are for the wages of

personnel, medications, training and supervision, transport and basic office resources.

The community-based model avoids the tendency, still strong in some countries, to

institutionalize the mentally ill. Large mental hospitals are expensive to establish,

manage and staff, patients are dislocated from their communities, and there is the ever-

present risk of neglect and abuse in such institutions, particularly in times of armed

conflict or in the unstable post-conflict period. As indicated, if custodial institutions are

created, this removes the responsibility from families for caring for the mentally ill,

patients often are forgotten about or abandoned by families (they become the stateís

problem), hospitalization increases dependency and passivity in patients

(institutionalization), and inmates become difficult to reintegrate into the community.

At the same time, there are social costs involved in instituting a wholly community-based

model. Community services can find it difficult to deal with a small percentage of

mental health emergencies, such as those few patients who are severely aggressive or

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highly chaotic in their behaviour. A problematic issue for a community-based services,

therefore, is how to deal with the minority of persons that requires short-term custodial

care: whether this should be in collaboration with the criminal-justice system (small,

dedicated forensic units in jails) or within the health system (small, secure, short-term

inpatient units or safe houses with sufficient security). The level of development of the

health system will determine which of these options is most feasible: where there are few

general hospital beds and low levels of staffing, dangerous patients need to be held for

short periods in humanely ran forensic units alongside prisons. If that model is pursued,

prison staff will need adequate support from community mental health personnel who

will assist in rehabilitating patients with the aim of returning them to the community as

soon as possible.

Scope and focus of post-conflict services: who should get priority treatment?

It is important to define the population that most urgently requires clinical services

because limitations in resources and skills in all conflict-affected countries means that

only a small portion of the community can be provided with direct, individual treatment ñ

in most post-conflict societies, the numbers receiving direct treatment can rarely exceed

1% of the total population per year. (Commonly the treated numbers are smaller than

this.)

Several factors determine the urgency of need for mental health attention: the nature of

the illness; its severity; the degree of disability; the level of behavioural disturbance

especially violence and suicidality; the availability and effectiveness of family support;

and the overall social context. Severe mental illnesses include acute or unremitting

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psychosis (schizophrenia and related disorders), severe mood disorders (manic

depression, severe melancholic or psychotic depression), especially where risk of suicide

or aggression is present, and the more disabling forms of anxiety such as acute

posttraumatic stress disorder and panic disorder. The severely mentally ill come to

attention usually do so because of severe and unremitting distress, bizarre and socially

disruptive behaviour (wandering away, shouting at neighbours, throwing stones), loss of

capacity to care for themselves or those for whom they are responsible, especially

children, and suicidal or aggressive behaviour.

It should be noted that there are more persons in the community with these severe

disorders who do not need urgent attention for several reasons: their conditions may be

stable or in remission; they may have good social supports; they or their families may not

want treatment; they may be receiving treatment from traditional healers; and/or their

social behaviour may not be problematic. The subgroup presenting at services are more

likely to be in situations where the family already is under duress, for example, where

members have been killed, injured or are sick and where the unit as a whole is struggling

to survive economically.

Some psychotic persons are so disturbed that they are chained to trees for their own

protection and the safety of the family. Often, especially when countries have

experienced long-term conflict, there has been an accumulation of untreated cases of

severe mental illness over time, so that there is an early referral ìbulgeî when clinics are

re-established. In addition, in many settings, persons with epilepsy are brought to clinics

because communities regard epilepsy as a form of mental illness and there may be no

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other specialists or facilities to treat this disorder at least in the immediate post-conflict

setting.

Most developing countries can only afford the psychiatric drugs that were introduced

over forty years ago (ìfirst generation drugsî) such as the antipsychotic agents,

chorpromazine and haloperidol, the tricyclic antidepressants (imipramine, amitriptyline),

sedatives such as diazepam, and mood stabilizers/anticonvulsants such as sodium

valproate and carbamazepine (these drugs also are used for epilepsy). Although replaced

by more expensive second-generation medications in developed countries

(antidepressants such as fluoxetine, antipsychotics such as risperadone), the older drugs

remain effective and reasonably safe in low dosage although use in persons with physical

illnesses, in children, and in the aged needs to be undertaken with caution and most of

these drugs are dangerous in overdose. Treatment needs to commence at low dosage and

patients monitored closely for side-effects and possible adverse effects. Family

education and counselling should include information about what is known about the

illness, as well as how medications should be used and their side effects. In many

settings, patients are not used to taking medications regularly over long periods of time

and families need to be advised that the psychiatric response will be gradual, often taking

weeks or months to achieve a full effect.

Counselling also should focus on strategies the family might use to resolve conflict with

patients, how to deal with bizarre or inappropriate behaviour, ways to encourage better

functioning without being punitive, and detection of signs of early relapse. Community

leaders may be included in discussing how to ensure safety if a patient is suicidal (the

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extended family and/or neighbours may be helpful taking turns in a ìsuicide watchî until

the person recovers) or where the person becomes threatening. Community leaders can

also be helpful in advising neighbours and villagers in general about the nature of the

problem so that they do not laugh at the patient, tease him or her, or retaliate if the ill

person is aggressive. Referral to other agencies (medical services, local and international

NGOs) may be needed for general medical care, support for food and housing, and

attendance at rehabilitation services for education or work training. Religious leaders

and/or traditional healers may be helpful in providing a spiritual understanding of the

personís suffering and by offering rituals or religious practices that assist in giving

meaning to the personís experiences.

As indicated earlier, there is no absolute distinction between severe mental illness and the

more prevalent stress-related psychological disorders found in post-conflict settings.

Depression in particular crosses the divide with some cases having characteristics of

severe mental illness (especially the melancholic and psychotic forms) and others, the

more moderate types, often being more clearly a response to stress. Nevertheless,

because stress-related reactions are so common, and if they persist, they can become

disabling, they present a challenge to health services since not all these reactions can (or

should) be treated especially when resources are scarce.

Epidemiological studies undertaken across diverse post-conflict settings have revealed a

substantial prevalence of these stress reactions, sometimes as high as 30-40%. Evidence

suggests, however, that direct clinical interventions may only be needed for a minority of

these persons. Most of the early psychological responses to trauma (hypervigilance,

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arousal, avoidance of threats, traumatic memories) can be seen as normative, meaning

that they are expectable acute reactions to life threatening experiences and many of these

reactions will settle down if social stability is achieved (see the principles of the ADAPT

model).

There are certain patterns that are likely to be more disabling, for example, where the

reaction is in response to very severe trauma such as witnessing the brutal death of family

members, being held in concentration or re-education camps or being subjected to torture

and sexual abuse. Where posttraumatic stress symptoms are complicated by depression

(that is, where there is comorbidity), disability is likely to be more severe. If populations

remain displaced, or are kept for long periods in refugee camps, detention centres or

other places where they feel unsafe and uncertain about their futures, then these reactions

are also more likely to become chronic. On the other hand, if well applied in social

reconstruction programs according to the principles of the ADAPT model, community

resiliency and natural recovery will be promoted so that the number who experience

chronic stress symptoms is likely to be smaller. Put simply, for most people, the best

ìtreatmentî is good policy that promotes social and economic stability, an important

principle that should encourage a ìwhole of governmentî effort to achieving these

objectives.

Relevant to this issue, is that there is strong evidence that early mass psychological

debriefing (counselling for all persons exposed to trauma) is not warranted, nor is it

feasible or affordable in most developing countries. Some acute stress reactions need

emergency attention, however, because the level of distress or behavioural disturbance is

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so severe that the sufferer or the family cannot cope with the immediate situation. A

crisis intervention approach using a combination of interventions can be very successful.

This includes a full psychosocial assessment offering culturally appropriate emotional

support, encouraging problem solving, providing family counselling, mobilizing

community supports and NGO assistance, and judiciously using medication when

indicated. Traditional healers, cultural mourning practices and other social mechanisms

may assist those with severe traumatic reactions, although, as yet, no systematic evidence

has been gathered to show the effectiveness of these interventions.

Nevertheless, a minority of persons continue to suffer chronic and severe posttraumatic

stress reactions, depression and anxiety even after peace has been established. These

patients may use alcohol and/or drugs to gain relief from their symptoms and they may

become withdrawn or aggressive. An increasing number of these persons may begin to

attend clinics once the community has developed trust in the service (torture and rape

survivors may be particularly reluctant at first to attend). Hence service providers need

to be aware of the likely changes in service demands in clinics over time: in the early

phase of establishing clinics, the majority of patients are likely to have severe mental

disorders (psychosis, epilepsy, severe depression, brain syndromes) and acute stress

reactions, whereas as time passes, there will be an increase in persons with chronic and

unremitting traumatic stress reactions.

For the common trauma and stress-related problems, multi-modal treatments are needed

in which all or some of the following elements are used: collaboration with traditional

heelers where possible; practical counselling focusing on family and social problems and

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how to solve them; stress management techniques (relaxation, breathing exercises,

dealing with negative attitudes about symptoms, gradual exposure to phobic situations

that create fear), family support and education; medication in selective cases; liaising

with community supports and medical services; and work retraining and occupational

assistance. Some but not all patients find that talking about their traumatic histories to a

sympathetic counsellor gives them a sense of relief. The timing of such discussions

varies across patients with some wanting to speak early in counselling about the trauma

they have suffered and others only feeling comfortable to talk once they get to know the

counsellor well. Some patients benefit from antidepressant agents and, in selective cases,

from the addition of mood stabilizers.

Although there are no treatment outcome studies specific to post-conflict countries,

clinical observations suggest that most patients (whether with severe mental illness or

stress reactions) and their families are assisted by interventions. In many instances, the

outcomes can be dramatic, with psychotic patients tied to trees or locked in rooms for

their own safety being released from their chains once appropriate treatment is given.

Persons with more moderate, acute forms of anxiety, depression and posttraumatic stress

usually respond well. On the other hand, there is a range of therapeutic responses, with

some chronically mentally ill persons only achieving moderate but nevertheless

significant benefits from treatment, and some severely traumatized persons only making

gradual progress. Overall, the social, cultural and economic advantages of access to

mental health services usually are evident: no longer does the community have to fear

mental illness or feel helpless in dealing with it, and affected families are assisted in the

burden of caring for a previously dysfunctional member, allowing healthy members to

138
devote more of their energies to survival and adaptation in the demanding post-conflict

environment.

Structural and Developmental Considerations: How to Start

It is common, particularly in the midst of an acute humanitarian crisis, for substantial

numbers of international NGOs to enter conflict-affected areas and to initiate

psychosocial programs focusing on the communal effects of trauma and abuse or on the

psychosocial needs of vulnerable groupings (rape survivors, single mothers, child

soldiers, unaccompanied minors, torture survivors, amongst others). This influx creates

many challenges including the tendency to compete for donor funding, lack of

coordination, and risk of duplication of interventions. Other limitations include the short-

term (and hence unsustainable) nature of many projects, and uncertainties about how

such projects ìfit inî with emerging national policies in health, social services, education

and other broad government services. A particular concern is the confusion created

between psychosocial programs and mental health services with the two sectors often

seen as overlapping and sometimes competing with each other. The area of traumatic

stress is a key example where confusion can occur: whether the focus should be on

broad-based population-wide prevention programs or on clinically-focused treatment

approaches.

The difficulty is that in the period of conflict or early post-conflict, there may not be a

strong enough health authority to insist on coordination of agencies or to adherence to an

interim strategic plan that details the roles and responsibilities of each group. Creating

such a platform for coordination and ensuring adherence to it should be a critical criterion

139
that donors, UN agencies and international NGOs are required to adopt with an explicit

commitment to supporting emerging Ministries of Health to assume responsibility and

authority as soon as is feasible.

Integrating mental health into the general primary care system is desirable for many

reasons: it is cost-effective, it avoids stand-alone vertical programs in each medical

speciality; it destigmatizes mental disorder by aligning services with general health; it

ensures a stake for mental health in the core package of services; and it facilitates

accessibility by having all services ìunder one roofî. Nevertheless, developmental

factors need to be taken into account in devising the optimal model for establishing

mental health services in each context. In countries with an established cadre of mental

health professionals (such as was the case in the Former Yugoslavia), the focus of

development should be on enhancing the capacity of that group and drawing it closer to

the primary care setting.

In very poor, post-conflict countries where there has been no previous mental health

services or relevant professionals, as was the case in East Timor, there can be serious

constraints in implementing a generic, primary care model for mental health immediately

following the period of mass conflict. In such settings, rebuilding functional primary

care services can be slow and primary care workers (usually nurses) are faced with a

wide array of problems for which they need specific skills (maternal-infant and child

health, physical trauma, communicable diseases and a wide range of severe and untreated

physical illnesses). Adding the full array of mental health problems to the list of generic

140
activities for which primary care nurses are responsible in the early reconstruction phase

may extend primary care workers beyond their capacity.

If mental health is simply ìaddedî to the list and the training provided is brief and

superficial, the area is likely to be neglected or dealt with in a cursory manner. Because

of time constraints and low levels of skills, inadequate attention is given to assessing

cases from a full biological, psychological, social and cultural perspective and wrong

diagnoses can be made. Wanting to help, nurses may dispense diazepam (a sedative) for

all types of mental disturbance instead of prescribing accurately for conditions such as

depression and psychosis. Inappropriate use of these and other medications can lead to

drug dependency, side effects (such as drowsiness) that actually decrease functioning,

serious adverse effects, including suicide, and frustration amongst inadequately treated

patients and families. These outcomes are more likely if, under pressure of time-limited

donor funding, program developers institute rapid training (and train-the-trainer models)

for primary care nurses that may be appropriate for some other medical fields but which

generally are not effective for developing and sustaining mental health skills.

Genuine skills in mental health can only be gained gradually, with substantial input in

mentoring, supervision, feedback and experience. As in other areas of health, skills

include technical capacities in diagnosis and treatment but if this knowledge is to be

applied appropriately, a deeper understanding is needed of a range of inter-related areas,

for example, in the spheres of professionalism, ethics, leadership, community

development and relationships, liaison, advocacy and training. Much is demanded of

mental health workers who often function for long periods of time in settings of

141
professional isolation. They need to learn comprehensive assessment and diagnostic

skills and gain knowledge about psychotropic medications; how to respond to the social,

familial and interpersonal aspects of mental disorder within a specific cultural context;

deal with the challenges of matching imported ìinternationalî techniques with indigenous

healing approaches; pay attention to issues of safety and suicidality; work to reduce

stigma and to advocate for patients; liaise with NGOs in relation to accommodation,

livelihoods and rehabilitation; coordinate with social services, for example, in relation to

the care and protection of children placed at risk by mental illness in a parent; collaborate

with the police in situations of crisis where there is a risk of violence; interact with the

general health system in relation to comorbidity (co-existence of physical and mental

disorder); and undertake broader roles of community education, negotiation, planning

and policy development.

Transitional Model

For these reasons, a case can be made that in some settings, for a transitional model to be

adopted as a developmental strategy, especially where community health services are at a

low point of functioning. In those contexts, it may be more appropriate to develop a

small specialist mental health team with members placed strategically across districts.

The team will require intensive training and ongoing supervision from expatriate

professionals for a period of time while the workers develop close relationships with

primary care teams to gradually build the overall capacity of the workforce in mental

health. In the first instance, existing specialists, whether expatriate or local, provide

mental health workers with in-depth experience and knowledge by in-service training and

supervision in a manner that, as time passes, allows the specialist worker to transmit their

142
knowledge using a train-the-trainer approach to the primary health care workers as the

capacity of the whole system increases. Gradually, the specialist mental health worker

can pass on cases to generic workers, providing them with in-service training, support

and consultancy so that the primary care system can assume a growing responsibility for

mental health. In general, even where small specialist teams are created, costs can still be

contained, especially as mental health requires virtually no technology or special

investigations to be able to function effectively. In most countries, the specialist group

are mainly drawn from the nursing profession with local or expatriate psychiatrists

providing leadership, consultancy, training and support.

Having a core specialist team also is important as a visible vanguard that ensures mental

health overcomes its stigmatized image and remains high on the Ministry of Health

agenda and more generally within society. In many settings, scepticism about mental

health persists, with persons from all walks of life wanting to avoid the issue and tending

to question whether interventions are necessary or effective. Worldwide, knowledge

about mental health and the need for services remains at a low base and the mentally ill

find it difficult to advocate for themselves. It is common for voices amongst the public

to demand that mentally ill are taken away and hospitalized to ìclean up the streetsî.

Following that path leads to human rights abuses so that the attempted institutional

ìremedyî turns out to be worse than the original problem. Hence, advocacy and

education of politicians, planners and administrators about these critical issues remains

an important initial and ongoing task. The role of the specialist team can evolve over

time, with members either increasingly assuming leadership or consultancy positions

143
within mental health or they may return to generic roles but with mental health as a key

focus.

CONCLUSIONS

In summary, for mental health services to be successful in post-conflict countries in the

developing world, several essential elements are needed. These include (1) early

advocacy for the field since the mentally ill can rarely advocate for themselves; (2) an

approach that is consistent with the broad humanitarian mission of promoting survival

and adaptation, in this case, for a vulnerable subgroup, the mentally ill; (3) a community-

based model that reverses the usual injustices and neglect caused by institutionalisation

and which draws on the assets of the family and community to normalize the experience

of mental disorder and maximize the functional capacity of affected persons; (4) a step-

wise capacity-building approach that recognizes the need for some specialization but

which builds the capacity of primary care at a pace that general community services can

absorb; (5) a focus on sustainability, cost-effectiveness, and measurable outcomes; (6) a

strong ongoing focus on raising awareness at all levels (community, political leaders,

Ministry of Health staff) in order to promote the field, build bridges with the community

and relevant supporting agencies, and ensure that the Ministry gives priority to mental

health as an integral and essential component of the primary care community health

system.

FUTURE DIRECTIONS AND THE NEED FOR RESEARCH

As in other areas of health service development in post-conflict developing countries,

mental health has been poorly researched. To create a scientific foundation for practice

144
in the field, there is a pressing need for donors and Ministries of Health to support high

quality research and evaluation activities documenting the process and outcomes of

service development (including mental health prevention and promotion programs).

Ultimately, rigorous research and evaluation activities will be cost-saving, since it will

obviate the need to ìreinvent the wheelî after each humanitarian emergency.

Some key topics for research include:

1. What are the conditions that are required to develop a sustainable and effective mental

health workforce at the primary care level in post-conflict countries?

• What models of training, mentoring and supervision are effective in

training primary care nurses in the field?

• What should be the content, style and mode of delivery of training

programs and how do contextual and cultural factors influence how

training is best undertaken?

• Which areas do primary care workers find most difficult to absorb and

implement in mental health (for example, particular diagnostic groups,

areas of assessment, areas of treatment)?

• What is the minimal level of ìspecialistî support needed to maintain

moral, professionalism and effectiveness of primary care workers in

mental health?

2. What is the course of treated mental disorders in post-conflict countries and what

components of intervention are most helpful for particular conditions?

• Which disorders respond well to treatment and which do not?

145
 • What are the social factors (family, community) that assist recovery and

functioning?

• To what extent do traditional healing methods assist in recovery and for

what categories of disorder?

3. How do attitudes change in relation to mental illness with the introduction of

mental health services and what factors lead to positive change?

• Amongst high level planners, policy makers, politicians

• Amongst general health staff

• Amongst the community at large

4. What are the real costs of using ìolderî compared to newer drugs in relation to

effectiveness, side effects, adverse effects and long-term functioning of patients?

146
Table 1

Issue In humanitarian phase Towards future

Service model Depends on existing Focus should always

resources and be on community-

expertise: if mental based approach

health personnel integrated or closely

available, build their aligned with primary

expertise and use care

crisis to assist in

reform (eg move to

primary care model); if

no facilities or skilled

staff available,

develop a community-

based crisis approach

with capacity building

and planning elements

Transcultural Use international Gradually establish

Diagnosis system but with indigenous concepts

flexibility if no and develop local

indigenous system classification

immediately available

Traditional healers Investigate capacity Coordinate and define

early and attempt to roles as far as

147
 coordinate but should possible but

not hold up standards important

interventions for

severely disturbed

Approach to doctor- Often top-down Gradual shift towards

patient interactions (authoritarian) to a collaborative

begin with approach but culture

will determine the

pace

Family/village Difficult to insist on This and other ethical

involvement versus confidentiality in issues to be

confidentiality, traditional discussed and

professional boundary environments debated with workers

concerns to reach a local

consensus

Managing violence Early protocols must Gradual development

arising from mental give high priority to of memoranda of

disturbance safety for patient, understanding and

family, community and later, legislation,

health worker dealing with violence

(mental health, police,

criminal-justice

system). Aim towards

least restrictive option

148
 consistent with safety

Coordination with Can be a challenge in Aim towards the

NGOs and other early phase Ministry having a

contributors coordinating role with

interagency process

defining roles,

responsibilities and

referrals

Training Rapid training without Training must lead to

further supervision is sustainable

dangerous professional change:

incremental

development requiring

longer term plan of

mentoring,

supervision, in-service

training

Credentialing Difficult to predict Commence as early as

whether local workers possible discussions

recruited early in post- with MOH about

conflict phase will be credentialing of

eligible for future MOH training and workers

positions as well as delegations

(who can prescribe

149
 medication)

Training of Local doctors often If psychiatrist(s)

psychiatrists scarce in post-conflict trained, critical that

settings and needed appropriate training is

for primary care given: focusing on

leadership in a

community-based

public mental health

system not solely on

treating individual

patients.

Service focus Persons and their Severe mental illness

families who are at and neuropsychiatric

high survival and disorders likely to

adaptational risk predominate early,

because of mental with chronic cases of

disturbance of any severe trauma-related

kind stress and depression

emerging more

gradually over time

150
Suggested Reading

Emmelkamp J. Komproe IH. Van Ommeren M. Schagen S. The relation between coping,
social support and psychological and somatic symptoms among torture survivors in
Nepal. Psychological Medicine. 32(8):1465-70, 2004 Nov.

Ferri C. Chisholm D. Van Ommeren M. Prince M. Resource utilisation for

neuropsychiatric disorders in developing countries: a multinational Delphi consensus
study. Social Psychiatry & Psychiatric Epidemiology. 39(3):218-27, 2004 Mar.

Kamau M. Silove D. Steel Z. Catanzaro R. Bateman & Ekblad S. Psychiatric disorders in

an African refugee camp. Interevention: International Journal of Mental Health,
Psychosocial Work and Counselling in Areas of Armed Conflict. 2(2):84-89. 2004 June.

Mollica RF. Cui X. McInnes K. Massagli MP. Science-based policy for psychosocial
interventions in refugee camps: a Cambodian example. Journal of Nervous & Mental
Disease. 190(3):158-66 2002 Mar.

Mollica RF. Waging a new kind of war. Invisible wounds. Scientific American.
282(6):54-7, 2000 Jun.

Mollica RF. McInnes K. Sarajlic N. Lavelle J. Sarajlic I. Massagli MP. Disability

associated with psychiatric comorbidity and health status in Bosnian refugees living in
Croatia. JAMA. 282(5):433-9, 1999 Aug.

Silove D. The psychosocial effects of torture, mass human rights violations and refugee
trauma: towards an integrated conceptual framework. The Journal of Nervous and Mental
Disease. 187(4):200-207, 1999 Apr.

Silove D. Trauma and Forced Relocation. Current Opinions in Psychiatry; 13:231-236,

2000.

Silove D. Ekblad S. Mollica R. The rights of the severely mentally ill in post-conflict
societies. The Lancet. 355(9214):1548-1549, 2000 April 29.

Silove D. Manicavasagar V. Armstrong T. Mental health contributions to emergency-

relief programmes-lessons from East Timor. The Health Exchange. Asia, London 2003;
Nov. p14-17

151
Silove D. Manicavasagar V. Baker K. Mausiri M. Soares M. de Carvalho F. Soares A.
Amiral ZF. Indices of social risk among first attenders of an emergency mental health
services in post-conflict East Timor: an exploratory investigation. Australian and New
Zealand Journal of Psychiatry In press, December, 2004.

Steel Z. Silove D. Phan T. Bauman A. Long-term effect of psychological trauma on the

mental health of Vietnamese refugees resettled in Australia: a population-based study.
The Lancet. 360(9339):1056-62, 2002 Oct 5.

Sondergaard HP. Ekblad S. Theorell T. Self-reported life event patterns and their relation
to health among recently resettled Iraqi and Kurdish refugees in Sweden. Journal of
Nervous & Mental Disease. 189(12):838-45, 2001 Dec.

Van Ommeren M. Saxena S. Loretti A. Saraceno B. Ensuring care for patients in

custodial psychiatric hospitals in emergencies. Lancet. 362(9383):574, 2003 Aug 16.

Weiss MG. Saraceno B. Saxena S. Van Ommeren M. Mental health in the aftermath of
disasters: consensus and controversy. Journal of Nervous & Mental Disease. 191(9):611-
5, 2003 Sep.

Weine S. Danieli Y. Silove D. Van Ommeren V. Guidelines for international training in

mental health and psychosocial interventions for trauma exposed populations in clinical
and community settings. Psychiatry: Interpersonal & Biological Processes. Sum 2002;
65(2):156-164

Zwi A. Silove D. Hearing the voices: mental health services in East Timor. The Lancet
2002; 360 Suppl: s45-46, Dec

152
 CHAPTER 8

BURNOUT AMONG HUMANITARIAN AID WORKERS AND HUMAN

SERVICE PROVIDERS IN POST-CONFLICT SOCIETIES

Barbara Lopes Cardozo, MD, MPh

ABSTRACT
Humanitarian aid workers and human service providers, in post-conflict societies are
exposed to stress from a variety of source that may result in burnout and stress-induced
illnesses. Burnout is a syndrome associated with job-related stress; other reactions to
stress that occur in people working under stressful conditions include PTSD, depression,
anxiety symptoms, and risk-taking behavior. Initial research shows that burnout and
other stress-related illness may be substantial among human service providers and aid
workers. A number of known risk factors may contribute to burnout; however, there also
are a number of mitigating factors, which may lessen the risk for stress-related illness.
The ability to cope with stressful situations depends upon a person's individual
psychological strengths, as well as on external factors. Support strategies for aid works
may include family and social networks, preventive measures of self-care, and
organizational support systems. To date, there is a lack of science-based knowledge
about the psychological health of staff or the impact of stress-related illness in post-
conflict settings. There also is a lack of studies about the consequences of extremes
stress on aid workers and about what agencies can do to appropriately manage and
support staff and improve worker productivity. Are of future research should include
longitudinal studies to establish predictive relationships between the personal,
organizational, and duty-related stressors, and mental health and organizational
productivity. Evaluation of organization programs designed to promote psychological
well-being of staff can determine the effectiveness of such interventions. Other areas of
research should address the selection of aid workers and investigate psychological
support frameworks.

INTRODUCTION

Humanitarian aid workers and human service providers in post-conflict societies are

exposed to stress from a variety of sources that may result in burnout and stress-induced

illnesses. Human service providers include physicians, social workers, health and mental

health care workers. Aid workers are those who work for humanitarian relief and aid

153
agencies. Even in stable environments, human service providers, workers are exposed to

numerous factors that may lead to burnout or vicarious traumatization. Burnout is

defined as ìexhaustion of physical or emotional strength and motivation usually as a

result of prolonged stress or frustrationî (Merriam-Webster dictionary). Burnout is a

syndrome associated with job-related stress and is reportedly common among

humanitarian aid workers and human service providers.

In the early phases after the end of a conflict, health and mental health care services often

are partially provided with the assistance of the international humanitarian community.

International humanitarian aid workers, staff who are working in a country other than

their native country, as well as national aid workers may be at risk for high occupational

stress levels, burnout, and other adverse effects such as vicarious traumatization,

depression, and posttraumatic stress disorder. It is well known that human service

providers worldwide are at risk for these effects; however, national staff working in post-

conflict societies face additional stressors because they may have previously experienced

traumatic events related to the conflict in their country. Over the last decade the

environment in post-conflict countries has become more unpredictable and has resulted

in aid workers being targeted by warring parties, 2 intensifying the level of stress, trauma,

and mental illness of aid workers.

National staff described in this chapter, includes all workers in post conflict nations but

may also include staff employed by international organizations. National staff generally

make up the majority of workers in international aid organizations.

154
Although all staff in post-conflict societies are exposed to stressors and are at risk for

burnout, all are not affected in the same way. There are risk or protective factors, which

may mitigate the effect of stressors on an individual worker. In this chapter, intervention

and prevention strategies will be described for individuals as well as organizations.

Finally, we will outline future research directions and describe strategies that will shed

some light on remaining questions.

STRESSORS

Humanitarian aid workers and human service providers in conflict and post-conflict

settings are exposed to a number of stressors and traumatic events that may result in

stress-related illness. Over the last 10 to 15 years, the environment in which

humanitarian assistance has been implemented has changed resulting in workers

increasingly being targeted by violence. During the last decade, intentional violence has

become the leading cause of death 67.4 %, (n=253), among aid workers in complex

emergencies, and death due to motor vehicle accidents 17% (n=64) was a distant second,2

other causes including disease and natural causes was 8% (n=31). The murders of aid

workers that took place over the last five years, in East Timor, Central Africa, Chechnya,

Afghanistan, and Iraq illustrate the dangers of violent physical assault in conflict and

post-conflict nations. The increased risk for assault and death is one example of

psychologically traumatic events confronting aid workers today.2

Staff also suffer more mundane stressors related to difficult situations in post-conflict

societies.3, 4 Living conditions are often poor, with a lack of privacy, a lack of separation

155
between work and living space, and intermittent or non-existent running water and

electricity. The job may require traveling on hazardous roads with unreliable means of

transportation. Access to medical care often is limited, and evacuation in case of personal

illness or injury may be difficult. In addition to these difficult working conditions,

international aid workers are separated from by their usual social support network.

Separation from family and friends for extended periods of time may be a stressor in

itself. Furthermore, communication with the outside world may be limited due to a lack

of access to phone lines, e-mail, and international newspapers or television.

PHYSICAL ILLNESS

Physical illnesses experienced by humanitarian staff can have serious consequences in

countries where the availability of health services may be limited. Preventable infectious

diseases, such as malaria, as well as accidents have been reported as the main medical

problems and account for the majority of medical evacuations among international staff.5

Peytremann et al. (2001) included national staff in their study sample and they found that

fatalities related to infectious disease, particularly HIV, were noticeable, reflecting the

burden of disease in these parts of the world.6

The stressors for national staff are compounded with previous traumatic experiences. For

example, in June 2000, a study conducted by the Centers for Disease Control and

Prevention (CDC) in Kosovo among 410 international and 429 Kosovar Albanian aid

workers from 22 humanitarian organizations, found that national staff had higher rates of

posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) than their international counterpart.7 This is

understandable because these workers had been exposed for 10 years to an environment

of oppression, persecution, ethnic killings, and hatred. Shortly after the end of the war in

156
1999, the remaining mental health care workers in Kosovo started a center for

rehabilitation of trauma and torture victims, and mental health staff were providing care

to the victims of the conflict. Most of the national staff themselves had suffered the

consequences of the conflict.

STRESS REACTIONS

Burnout is a syndrome associated with job-related stress, and the term describes the

effects of stress on all types of workers. Burnout differs from depression in that burnout

only involves a personís relationship to his or her work, whereas depression globally

affects a personís life. Lay people first described the syndrome of burnout, and social

scientists and psychologists have developed the concept further. Burnout is a prolonged

response to chronic emotional and interpersonal stressors on the job, and is defined by

three components: exhaustion, depersonalization (a change in an individuals self-

awareness, such that they feel detached from their own experiences, with the self, the

body and mind seeming alien or distant), and diminished feelings of accomplishment or

reduced efficacy.8 Burnout usually has negative consequences on job performance and

may lead to reduced efficacy and lower productivity.9

In the past 10 years, the emotional impact of working with trauma survivors has been

examined under several concepts other than burnout, including secondary traumatic

stress10, vicarious trauma11, and compassion fatigue.10 These concepts are related but not

identical to burnout. A full discussion of these concepts is outside the scope of this

article. Health and mental health workers in post-conflict settings may suffer primary

traumatization by direct exposure to severe traumatic events, such as assaults and sniper

fire. Mental health workers in particular may be exposed to additional distress and

157
secondary traumatization because of this potential indirect exposure in their role as

therapists.12 This phenomenon also has been termed ìvicarious traumatizationî and

originally was introduced by McCann and Pearlman in 1990.11 The concept of

compassion fatigue was described in 1992 when Joinson used the term to investigate the

nature of burnout in nurses.13 According to Figley, compassion fatigue is a more user

friendly term for secondary traumatic stress disorder, which is almost identical to PSTD,

except that it affects persons who are emotionally affected by the trauma of another

(usually a client or a family member).10

Other reactions to stress that occur in people working under stressful conditions include

PTSD, depression, anxiety symptoms, and risk-taking behavior (e.g. alcohol abuse).

MAGNITUDE OF THE PROBLEM

Burnout and other stress-related illness, e.g., depression and other mental morbidity, may

be substantial among human service providers, such as physicians, social workers, aid

workers, and other care-givers. Caplan reported that stress, anxiety, and depression were

more common among general practitioners working in a major hospital in the United

Kingdom, than among managers.14 In Finland, burnout is reported to be more common

among psychiatrists than physicians in other specialties.15 Another study in the United

States found that a history of depression was significantly more common among

psychiatrists than among other physicians or the general population.16 In the scientific

literature, evidence regarding stress and burnout is mostly derived from studies of small

and localized samples that were conducted in stable societies.17

158
Burnout and vicarious traumatization, have rarely been studied in aid workers and mental

health care workers in post-conflict societies. In June 2000, the International Emergency

and Refugee Health Branch of CDC/National Center for Environmental Health

conducted a mental health survey of aid workers employed by international humanitarian

organizations in Kosovo. This survey showed that event-related stressors were common

in both international and Kosovar Albanian aid workers. Symptoms of depression among

all aid workers were higher than among the general population in stable communities.7

A cross-sectional survey of leading international organizations described the selection,

training, and psychological support of aid workers in 1997 and found that procedures for

recruitment, selection, training field support, and follow-up varied widely.18 Preventive

mental health measures for aid workers received little attention by management of

humanitarian aid organizations. In 1998, another cross-sectional survey was conducted by

the WHO and the International Center for Migration on the occupational health of field

personnel in complex emergencies.19 Although this survey did not specifically measure

burnout, general fatigue, headaches, irritability, and sleeping difficulties were found to be

common. In 2001, a study among 915 returned staff from five humanitarian aid agencies

showed high rates of direct or indirect exposure to life-threatening events.

Approximately 30% of respondents showed significant symptoms of PTSD.20

RISK AND MITIGATING FACTORS

A number of known risk factors may contribute to burnout; these include excessive

demands from self, others, and the situation; lack of resources, personnel, and time to

complete a job; excessive time in the same job; repetitive tasks; lack of control over the

159
job situation, unrealistic expectations; and lack of acceptance, acknowledgement, and

recognition.21 However, there also are a number of mitigating factors which may lessen

the risk for stress-related illness such as burnout.

Individual Factors

The ability to cope with stressful situations depends upon a personís individual

psychological strengths, as well as on external factors. These factors can be viewed in

terms of personal (internal) and external resources. Personal resources include the

characteristics that constitute resiliency. Some factors that have been associated with

resiliency to stress in different contexts include: resourcefulness, flexibility in emotional

experience, intellectual mastery, the desire and ability to help others, and a vision of

moral order.22 Other factors include self-esteem, hardiness, and a strong physical and

psychological constitution.

Studies among war veterans have attempted to identify personality risk factors for stress-

related illnesses, adverse life events prior to the trauma, and previous psychiatric

illness.23However, personality characteristics of veterans alone cannot account for the

high prevalence of mental illness among them. Clearly, external environment plays a

major role in the etiology of stress-related illness. Several studies have found a

correlation between the cumulative number of traumatic events and prevalence of

PTSD.21 A relationship between trauma events and depression also has been observed.

Moreover, personality risk factors appear to become less relevant as the intensity of the

traumatic experience increases.

160
External Factors

Support strategies for aid workers include family and social networks, preventive

measures of self-care, which consists of teaching the individual how to manage stress on

his or her own, and organizational support systems, or the systems put into place by an

organization, including stress management training before departure, psychological

support while working in the field, and after completing the assignment. Social support

networks and family can be particularly important assets to offset stressors encountered

by aid workers. International staff often is separated temporarily from family and friends

back home. Access to communication with family and friends at home appear to be

particularly important for international staff.7, 24 Usually this is not the case for national

staff. On the other hand, national staff may have to deal with additional stressors e.g. loss

of family members; these workers often are selected from the same population that the

humanitarian agency serves and may have suffered traumatic events directly related to

the events that precipitated the humanitarian intervention. National staff generally cannot

go home to a safe place and stable environment after the assignment is over, in contrast

to international staff.

ACTION PLAN-EVIDENCE BASED STRATEGIES AND INTERVENTIONS

FOR PREVENTION OF BURNOUT

Stress / Support Balance

The stress and support balance depicted in figure 1 shows the equilibrium between the

factors that place stress on the individual and those that lessen the stress, also known as

mitigating factors. Job-related and other stressors may results in burnout among aid

workers and human service providers if no adequate and effective mitigating factors are

161
in place, e.g. organizational support, supervision, self-care resources, adequate training

and education, to counterbalance these stressors. On the one hand every effort should be

made to try to minimize stressors, and on the other hand mitigating factors should be

instituted to decrease the risk for burnout.

Strategies for the Individual

Education and training for health staff working in post conflict settings may provide

additional personal tools for managing stress, known as coping skills. Various

intervention strategies have been recommended for workers in stable communities. These

include teaching workers how to relax; how to interact with their co-workers, and how to

manage competing work demands for their limited available time. Most of these will also

be helpful for workers in post-conflict societies.25, 26

Clinical supervision is an important mechanism for those human service providers who

work with victims of trauma. Individual or group supervision can provide emotional

support and provide an intellectual perspective for dealing with the effects of vicarious

traumatization. Supervision also provides a teaching element about ways that vicarious

trauma may affect mental health workers and other caretakers.

Organizational Policies

A focus on sound organizational policies of humanitarian organizations is essential for

the prevention of stress in the human services professions and aid organizations working

in post-conflict environments. At present these policies tend to be non-existent or

incomplete and vary significantly from one organization to the next.18 Within the

162
framework of institutional policies, mechanisms to support staff need more detailed

elaboration.

In general, an organizational culture that is designed to be supportive of its staff and has

clear management structures, with a well-defined decision-making process, is less likely

to cause preventable organizational stressors. Contracts with poor conditions for workers,

unclear terms of reference, and salaries, which are not paid in a timely fashion or are

inadequate, may be major sources of stress. Although many humanitarian aid

organizations, including the United Nations and non-governmental organizations, employ

larger numbers of national staff than international staff, organizational policies for

national staff, such as selection and recruitment, remuneration, insurance, and

psychological support, are rarely fully developed. National staff generally receives less

organizational support and lower salaries from international aid organizations than their

international counterparts.

A formal mentoring system for new personnel or the designation of a particular worker

chosen by his or her peers in the field to act as the support person for that particular area

are two examples of good current practice. Ad hoc peer support networks often exist but

should be formalized in organizational policies.

Work overload is common among staff working is post-conflict settings. The needs are

usually enormous and resources are limited. Organizations must guard against excessive

workloads by employing sufficient staff. Paid vacation time and mandatory rest and

relaxation policies (R & R) can help alleviate the effects of unavoidable work overload.

163
Health and mental health care workers in post-conflict countries often lack the specific

education, clinical training, and experience to deal with survivors of war and conflict.

Health care workers in post-conflict settings often lack up-to-date books, and access to

medical journals and other training resources. International organizations and academic

institutions may help provide additional training and materials to colleagues in post-

conflict countries.

FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS

Although there is a substantial body of research concerning psychological morbidity in

health care and mental health care workers in stable societies, less is known about the

psychological health of staff or the impact of stress-related illness in post-conflict

settings. To date, there also is a lack of studies about the consequences of extreme stress

on aid workers and about what agencies can do to appropriately manage and support staff

and improve worker productivity.18

Cross-sectional Surveys:

The cross-sectional surveys mentioned previously have identified many areas of research

that need elaboration. For example, it is possible that results from the CDC survey in

Kosovo cannot be generalized to aid workers operating in more acute emergencies or in

more stable, post-emergency situations.7 Further cross-sectional studies among staff in

post-conflict nations would contribute to our understanding of psychological morbidity

and provide data of the prevalence of stress-related illness and post-traumatic responses

in human service providers.

164
Cross-sectional surveys provide us with a snapshot of the risk and mitigating factors and

psychological morbidity at a given point in time. However, no causal inference can be

drawn from such studies. In cross-sectional surveys, no adequate baseline information is

available on the mental health status of relief workers prior to deployment. Moreover, it

is not possible to know whether aid workers had symptoms of poor mental health before

the assignment or whether the nature of the work contributed to the development of

symptoms. Although complex and logistically difficult, a long-term prospective study is

required to answer some of these questions definitively.

Longitudinal and Prospective Studies

Only a longitudinal approach can establish predictive relationships between the personal,

organizational, and duty-related stressors, and mental health and organizational

productivity. Such a study could provide scientific evidence regarding mental health

outcomes and organizational effectiveness among staff working in conditions of stress

and hardship. Specific objectives include the following:

1. To identify aspects of work associated with elevated risk of poor mental health

and burnout in staff.

2. To identify the risk and resilience factors moderating the impact of such stressors

on mental health and organizational outcomes.

3. To provide recommendations for selection, training, and management of staff,

and effective intervention for stressed individuals.

Evaluation Studies

There are indications that good staff management and psychosocial support to aid

workers may prevent stress-related mental illness to some extent and improve the overall

165
quality and efficiency of humanitarian aid. For example, in the survey conducted by the

CDC in Kosovo, international aid workers who reported poor organizational support

were significantly more likely to be depressed and had higher non-specific psychiatric

morbidity scores than those reporting excellent support.7,26 Evaluation of organizational

programs designed to promote psychological well-being of staff can determine the

effectiveness of such interventions.

OTHER AREAS OF FUTURE RESEARCH

Selection of Aid Workers

Screening and selection procedures for aid workers by humanitarian agencies often are

not well defined, and it is uncertain which characteristics and qualities are likely to be the

most desirable in terms of prevention of psychological morbidity. The selection process

of aid workers varies widely between organizations. This may be partly due to a lack of a

sensitive interviewing instrument for predicting whether potential workers are more

likely to be successful in the field and less likely to develop stress-related mental illness.

The personality factors that play a role in defining successful outcomes of international

workers may be different to some degree for national staff in post conflict societies. It

would be important to conduct further studies to determine which personality factors are

the most likely to result in positive outcomes in terms of work performance and resilience

to developing mental illness. Adverse life events prior to the experience of working in

post-conflict societies and previous psychiatric illness may be important factors as well.

It will be necessary to develop and validate instruments to predict resiliency, assess the

166
impact of trauma, and predict the development of PTSD and burnout. Prospective studies

will be needed to identify the most desirable psychological profile.

Psychological Support Framework

Little research has been done to investigate which psychological support framework or

which services provided by humanitarian aid agencies are the most effective in

preventing adverse mental health outcomes among their staff. Peer-support networks,

either organized by the organization or informally arranged by returning aid workers may

be beneficial. Some organizations provide access to psychological care on an ìas neededî

basis. A general supportive organizational environment may be important, as may clear

organizational structures.

Further research with an interdisciplinary approach is necessary to shed more light on

these questions. Research that helps to clarify the relationship between vicarious trauma,

compassion fatigue, and burnout also would be useful in providing a clearer theoretical

framework.

167
 Figure 1. Balance of Stressors and Mitigating Factors of Humanitarian Aid Workers and Human Service Providers

Mental Health

Organizational support
Training
Group support
Supervision
Reasonable workload
Self-care
Adequate resources
Violence
Accidents
Illness
Living conditions
Separation
MITIGATING
STRESSORS FACTORS

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 Figure 2. Priority Research Directions
Future Investigations Rationale
Cross-sectional surveys to establish a database of burnout To contribute to our understanding of the magnitude of burnout
among health care providers in post conflict countries. and other psychological problems among staff.

Prospective study to identify personality factors among staff To help identify the most desirable psychological profile of
in post conflict settings. staff.

Longitudinal studies to establish predictive relationships To provide scientific evidence regarding mental health
between personal, organizational and duty-related stressors, outcomes and organizational effectiveness among staff working
and mental health and organizational productivity. in conditions of stress and hardship.
Outcome evaluation of psychosocial support programs To evaluate organizational programs designed to promote
psychological well-being of staff to determine the effectiveness
of such interventions.

Development of a psychosocial support framework To investigate which psychological support framework or which
services provided by the humanitarian agency are the most
effective in preventing adverse mental health outcomes among
staff.

169
REFERENCES:

1. Collins S. Working with the psychological effects of trauma: consequences for

mental health-care workers_ a literature review. J Psychiatric and Mental
Health Nursing 2003;10: 417-424.

2. Sheik M, Gutierrez MI, Bolton P, Spiegel P, Thieren M, Burnham G. Deaths

among humanitarian aid workers, BMJ 2000;321: 166-168.

3. Danieli Y, Rodley NS, Weisaeth L (eds.). International Responses to Traumatic

Stress, Amityville, New York: Baywood Publishing; 1996.

4. Lopes Cardozo B, Salama P. Mental health of humanitarian aid workers in

complex emergencies. In: Danieli Y, ed. Sharing the front line and the back
hills: international protectors and providers: peacekeepers, humanitarian aid
workers and the media in the midst of crisis. Amityville, NY: Baywood
Publishing; 2001: 242-55.

5. Mc Farlane CA. Risks Associated with the Psychological Adjustment of

Humanitarian Aid Workers. The Australasian Journal of Disaster and Trauma
Studies. 2004. Vol.1.

6. Peytremann I, Baduraux M, OíDonovan S, Loutan L. Medical evacuations and

fatalities of United Nations Highe Commissioner for Refugees Field
Employees. J Travel Med 2001; 8, 117-121.

7. Salama P, Lopes Cardozo B, Holtz T, Gotway CA, Kaiser R, Ghitis F, Toomey

E. The mental health of expatriate relief workers, Kosovo. In press. Disasters.

8. Maslach C, The Burnout: A Cost of Caring., Englewood Cliffs, Prentice-Hall

NJ; 1982.

9. Maslach C, Schaufeli WB, Leiter MP. Job burnout. Ann Rev Psychol 2001;
52:397-422.

10. Figley CR. Compassion fatigue as secondary traumatic stress disorder: an

overview. In: Compassion fatigue: coping with secondary traumatic stress
disorder in those who treat the traumatized. New York: Brunner/Mazel; 1995.

11. McCann IL, Pearlman LA. Vicarious traumatization: a framework for

understanding the effects of working with victims. J Trauma Stress 1990;3:
131-149.

12. Sabin-Farrel R, Turpin G. Vicarious traumatization: implications for the mental

health of health workers? Clin Psychol Rev 2003; 23: 449-480.

13. Joinson C. Coping with compassion fatigue. Nursing 1992;22: 116-122.

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practitioners, and senior health service managers. BMJ 1994; 309:1261-1263.

15. Korkeila JA, Tˆyry S, Kumpulainen K, Toivola JM, R‰s‰nen K, Kalimo R.

Burnout and self-perceived health among Finnish psychiatrists and child
psychiatrists: a national survey. Scan Public Health 2003; 31:85- 91.

16. Frank E, Dingle AD. Self-Reported Depression and Suicide Attempts Among
U.S. Women Physicians. Am J Psychiatry 1999;156:1887-1894.

17. Chopra SS, Sotile WM, Sotile MO. Physician burnout. JAMA 2004;291:633.

18. McCall M, Salama P. Selection, Training and Support of Relief Workers: An

Occupational Health Issue, BMJ 1999;318:113-116.

19. Division of Emergency and Humanitarian Action, WHO, UN Joint Medical

Services, International Center for Migration and Health, Occupational Health
of Field Personnel in Complex Emergencies: Report of a Pilot Study, Division
of Emergency and Humanitarian Action, Geneva: World Health Organization;
1998.

20. Eriksson EB, Vande Kemp H, Gorsuch R, Hoke S, Foy DW. Trauma exposure
and PTSD symptoms in international relief and development personnel. J
Trauma stress 2001;14:205-212.

21. Pines AM, Aronson E. Career Burnout, 1988: Causes and Cures, New York:
Free Press; 1988.

22. King LA, King DW, Fairbank JA, Keane, TM, Adams GA. Resilience-
recovery factors in post-traumatic stress disorder among female and male
Vietnam veterans: hardiness, postwar social support, and additional stressful
life events. J Soc Psychol 1998;74: 420-434.

23. Lopes Cardozo B, Vergara A, Agani F, Gotway CA. Mental Health, Social
Functioning and Attitudes of Kosovar Albanians Following the War in Kosovo,
JAMA 2000;284:569-577.

24. Smith B, Agger I, Danieli Y, Weisaeth L. Health Activities across Populations:

Emotional Response of International Humanitarian Aid Workers, in
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LL (eds.), Amityville, NY: Baywood Publishing; 1996.

25. Salama P. The Psychological Health of Relief Workers: Some Practical

Suggestions, Relief and Rehabilitation Newsletter 15; 1999.

26. People in Aid Code of Good Practice revised 2003. Overseas Development
Institute, London, 1997. Available at
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171
 CHAPTER 9

CONTINUING MEDICAL EDCUCATION AS A MODEL FOR MENTAL

HEALTH TRAINING FOR POST-CONFLICT COUNTRIES

Aida Kapetanovic, M.D.

ABSTRACT
Continuing Medical Education (CME) is essential to mental health recovery in post-
conflict countries, and can be derived from CME programs in developed countries. The
significance of well-organized, state regulated, contextually and culturally customized
system of CME in the process of mental health care will be highlighted. Different
formats of CME are described and a comprehensive model of CME that reflects the
relationship of mental health care to context, content and outcomes are presented. Five
trainings, conducted by the Harvard Program in Refugee Trauma (HPRT), for primary
health care professionals are briefly described as an example of best practices. A future
research agenda for CME in post-conflict environments is suggested.

INTRODUCTION

ìCollective violence, in its multiple forms, receives a high degree of public

attention...The world is still learning how to respond best to the various forms of

collective violence, but it is now clear that public health has an important part to play.î

(WHO, Report 2002). Health professionals in post-conflict society, dealing with human

beings on daily basis, are faced with increased health and mental health needs of

population. In order to be able to respond to new reality in an effective way they need

new knowledge and new skills.

The most effective way to disseminate new knowledge and new skills to medical

professionals is through a system of continuing medical education, commonly referred to

as CME. An effective CME system is institutionalized, highly supported by a Ministry

of Health, and regulated by law.

172
The Harvard Program in Refugee Trauma (HPRT) has been working for more than 25

years in the field of mental health in post-conflict societies (i.e., Cambodia, Bosnia and

Herzegovina, East Timor, Rwanda). During that period HPRT developed wide scope of

curricula for different forms of CME education.

CME ñ DEFINITION, IMPORTANCE AND ORGANIZATION

CME is being defined in different ways. The American Medical Association defines

CME as:

Educational activities designed to maintain, develop and increase

knowledge, skills and professional performance, as well as relationships
and links that a physician utilizes in order to satisfy patientsí needs, or
those of the population or the professionî (American Medical
Association). CME system includes the following core elements: (1)
updated knowledge and excellence, i.e. ìÖa commitment to life-long
learningî, (2) technical aspects, i.e. organization, legislation, financing,
formats (3) professional ethics, i.e. full commitment to the patient,
altruism, duty, honor and integrity, respect for others.

CME of particular country has to be integrated in all levels of health care delivery

system with its reflection on health policies, programs, structures, services and attitudes.

However, most of post-conflict countries have never established CME as a system.

While this definition has been developed for American medical practitioners, primarily

physicians and nurses, it can be applied to the mental health practitioners of all types

including medical doctors, nurses, mental health practitioners, including psychologists

and social workers, community workers and humanitarian relief workers. The core

elements can be contextualized to all mental health activities in a post-conflict society.

173
The key difference of a mental health CME program in a post-conflict environment from

one in a non-traumatized setting is that the CME is first used to build capacity (i.e.

knowledge, skills, behaviours) in all mental health practitioners, and then it is used to

sustain this capacity over time through an ongoing process of CME linked to on-site

supervision and technical assistance. Without the latter process, the initial capacity

building investment will collapse or greatly diminish over time. All mental health

practitioners will need this process of ongoing support and supervision overtime in a

post-conflict society.

In regard to the other core elements of traditional CME, the following needs to be

considered. Knowledge, one of the key elements offered to medical professionals

through CME, should address medical and mental health needs of population, i.e.

scientific content of CME must be based on needs assessment with two major

components: assessment of patientsí needs, and assessment of health professionalsí

needs. Basic content should reflect biological, psychological, social and spiritual needs

of individuals and affected societies.

CME have to be adjusted to context of particular country. The social, economic, cultural

and political context of particular country determines not only content, but also set of

outcomes and organization of CME as a system (regulation, formats, way of delivery,

etc.).

174
As mentioned above, most of post-conflict countries have never had a CME system.

some of At the same time post-conflict societies are characterized by the increase in both

health and mental health needs of population, significant shortage of health

professionals, insufficient health services by scope and number, destroyed and seriously

damaged health infrastructure, poverty, and broken traditional social structure. Health

professionals in post-conflict environment have found themselves in a situation they had

never been before; with lack of professional knowledge and skills to face the

consequences of human cruelty and violence. They do not know how to categorize, and

heal immeasurable grief and pain of population that was exposed to tremendous losses,

torture and humiliation. They are frustrated as professionals and human beings, but on

the other side these circumstances additionally oblige them to act according to the

highest standards of their professional ethics.

CME can offer a scientifically based plan of mental health care that includes the most

up-to-date knowledge on identification, treatment and evaluation of outcomes. The

crucial role of CME in post-conflict society is to translate updated and evidence based

knowledge into effective practices in the health sector that will resulted in improvement

of patient and public health outcomes, and contribute to healing and reconciliation of the

society as a whole. Successful transformation from knowledge to effective praxis is by

itself a demanding process, with a number of challenges to be solved, in particular in

chaotic post-conflict environment.

As any other educational system, CME has to be culturally competent, which means ìÖ

integration and transformation of knowledge and data from and about individuals and

175
groups of people into specific clinical standards, skills, service approaches, and attitudes

that mach the individualís culture and increased both the quality and appropriateness of

health care outcomes.î (Davis King,1997). Besides cultural competence and cultural

sensitivity the experiences from post-conflict societies highlight some other factors with

strong influence on CME capacity to produce positive changes in health care practicing.

Patient and health professional might belong to different ethnic groups, which may have

been in conflict, and establishing of therapeutic relation between patient and healer

becomes more difficult. In such situation medical professional has a responsibility to

recognise and confront his/her own religious or ethnical prejudices. CME strengthens

health workersí professional identity, and increase their capacity to perform with a

respect to the principles of ethical neutrality. The traumatic experiences of patients are

very often associated with strong feeling of stigma and shame. For example, in many

cultures raped women are blamed and rejected by their own society. Victims will confess

painful and usually humiliated experience to a doctor, only if the relation of trust and

mutual respect and understanding is developed. Consequently, doctor-patient relation

becomes a central part of healing process. Inequality in the access to services (remote

rural areas, not existing health care insurance system) can also be a serious obstacle in

providing for health care. Health professionals, physicians and nurses, in post-conflict

societies, are usually in position to act as managers. Being faced with a lack of human

and other resources s/he should be both effective and efficient, with available resources.

On one side shortage of human and other resources and, on the other side, increased

exposure to stressful situations urge them to develop their team-leading skills.

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CME outcomes are generated within the realities of the countryís political, economical,

and health care system. Due to physical damage and loss of life caused by violence,

CME in post-conflict countries involve a wider scope of outcomes. Since mental health

outcomes can influence the economic recovery and reconciliation process. Economic

development and reconciliation are of special importance in any post-conflict society.

Tentative relationships between context, content and outcomes of CME in post-conflict

society are presented in Figure 1. The basic elements of Figure 1 reveal a mental health

CME in a post-conflict setting.

Figure 1: Mental Health CME In Post ñConflict Societies

CME MODEL

- Scientifically Based Best Practices

- Cultural Validity / Appropriateness
- Evaluation of Outcomes
- Ongoing Training, Supervision and Technical Assistance

OUTCOMES

- Patient Changes in Symptoms / Disability

- Economic Productivity
- Reconciliation

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CME in the field of mental health in post-conflict societies has to be an organized and

planned activity, aimed at achieving and promoting healing process of individuals and

societies affected by mass violence. As such it should be directed to broad spectrum of

healing professionals, not just health professionals. Teachers, social workers, traditional

healers, clerics, society elders and the whole community could and should be mobilized

and included in the healing process.

Basic planning, administration, content, organizing and financing of CME system has to

be managed in a proper way with high influence of government and health authorities.

Managing of CME system could be done in different ways, which is not a topic of this

paper. Regardless of how CME system is organized, a type of regulatory body as a

pivotal actor of CME system, should be established. This body should deal, on one side,

with administration, planning and financing CME activities, and, on the other side, with

content and forms of CME establishing CME education as a system. Complexity of

context in post-conflict societies imposes need for national curricula recommendation.

Taking into consideration that health systems of post-conflict societies are usually in

process of reform and transition, CME need be integrated into the health reform as its

driving force. One of the roles of CME in the process of health reforms is maintaining

the achieved reform goals sustainable.

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A well-established CME system, up-dated and scientifically based, can transform mental

health practices and result in positive healing outcomes of individuals and societies

affected by mass-violence.

TYPES OF CME COURSES

CME is a very complex body of knowledge that can be disseminated in a number of

different formats (see figure 2). CME includes (1) postgraduate studies; (2) medical

school courses and (3) specialist courses. These formalized educational formats are

integrated into official educational system. Postgraduate study is an integral part of

development of knowledge that includes set of courses in a specific field. By completing

postgraduate study participants receive academic degree such as a Masterís degree or

Ph.D.. Medical school courses are part of an official curricula offered to medical

practitioners in training. Specialist courses are offered to graduate professionals or

specialists who are already in clinical practice.

Mental health CME can also be offered in more flexible formats such as (4) short

trainings, (5) small lecture series, (6) Internet based CME courses. CME courses (1) to

(3) can lead to degrees; (4) to (6) should result in academic credits and training

certificates.

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Figure 2: Delivery formats in CME system

CME SYSTEM

Degree leading i.e. formalized Credit based educational

Postgraduate studies Internet Course(s)

Medical School Course Short Training(s)

Residence&Specialist Course Small Lecture Series

Mental Health CME Content

Generally, it is possible to make distinction between courses with standardized curricula

and information-based trainings, based primarily on lectures, presentations and other

forms of information sharing.

Training with Standardized Curriculum

Training based on state-of-the-art scientific knowledge with stated specific science-based

curriculum and objectives. Trainings are usually built into courses that teach using

lectures, case presentations, and workshops, and are given over a three to six month

period, or longer. The courses usually include systematic evaluation of training

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outcomes offering academic credit and/or degree from an affiliated

university/government. This would includes format (1), (2) and (3).

Information Based Training

Short training that attempts to disseminate new skills, knowledge and attitudes by

primarily relying on lectures, case presentations by international and local experts,

workshops, use of films and videos. Training is not part of a course and usually lasts for

three to five days. Evaluations of these types of trainings usually do not include

assessment of knowledge transfer. These trainings, especially if conducted by a

university will offer a certificate indicating successful completion of the training.

Trainings with standardized curriculum are more appropriate for a post-conflict society.

Standards-based curriculum includes not only goals, objectives, and standards, but

everything that is done to enable attainment of those outcomes and, at the same time,

foster reflection and revision of the curriculum to ensure studentsí continued growth.

Integrating standards into curriculum is a very demanding process which basically

includes four processes: (1) developing curriculum framework, (2) selecting curriculum,

(3) choose the most appropriate education format (4) monitoring, reflection upon and

evaluation the curriculum implementation. In fact, all type of training regardless of

length can be based on standardized curriculum. In other words, standardization of

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curriculum does not depend on training length. It depends on fulfillment of set of content

and performance standards.

Box 1 Unfortunately, there are not many

Although more than a billion of people are
affected by consequences of mass violence, trainings with standardized curricula
most of Medical Schools curricula all over
the world consider violence and in the field of mental health in post-
psychological trauma as caused by violence
only under DSM IV- PTSD category. There conflict societies. Even university
are still a lot of discussions among scientists
about PTSD diagnose being culturally course curricula in the field of mental
appropriate and valid. These discussions are
beyond the scope of this article, but mental health are not updated according to
health consequences of mass violence are
much broader than they can be comprised recent scientific achievements and
within a PTSD diagnose. Medical workers,
physicians and nurses in spite of all recent knowledge about impact of mass
knowledge describing wide range of
psychological and physical consequences, violence to physical and mental health
symptoms and complains of emotional
suffering caused by mass violence usually (Box 1), i.e. these courses do not
complete their formal education largely with
no knowledge and skills sufficient to deal match all criteria for courses based on
with violence consequences.
standardized curricula.

In post-conflict societies numerous NGOs are involved in delivering different trainings

and courses in the field of psychosocial and mental health issues. Most of these courses

are information-based trainings with content and outcomes that are not adjusted to

specific environment of particular post-conflict country. At the same time these NGOs

organize and finance CME in post-conflict society aiming at dominating over the content

and administration of CME activities. High degree of coordination of these activities

undertaken by NGOs should be obtained through proactive role of CME regulatory body

and Ministry of Health.

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HPRTíS CURRICULA FOR CME IN POST-CONFLICT SOCIETIES

HPRT fully developed several curricula that can be successfully adapted and applied in

different post-conflict settings. They were originally developed and implemented for

training of primary care providers, mostly medical doctors, but some of these curricula

have been successfully used for training other healing professionals, i.e. sociologist,

social workers, priests. Each curriculum can be customized for primary care (PC)

settings that have special patient population or clinical needs and modified in a way to be

maximally cultural sensitive and clinical effective, i.e. updated and properly culturally

customized HPRT curricula could be world-widely used. HPRT developed the following

training curricula:

1. Medical School Curriculum - Pedagogy of Trauma

2. Curriculum for Internet based CME

3. Harvard Training for Primary Physicians in the Kingdom of Cambodia

4. Harvard Training for Primary Care Providers in Bosnia-Herzegovina

5. Toolkit for healing victims of mass-violence

Brief description and development process of these five HPRT training curricula are

presented in the text bellow.

Medical School Curriculum - Pedagogy Of Trauma

Pedagogy of Trauma is a university curriculum for professionals who work with

traumatized persons, i.e. training with standardized curricula. It is primarily designed for

183
family medicine residents. The curriculum was developed in collaboration with

University of Sarajevo, Bosnian and Herzegovina, sponsored by Soros Foundation. It

was published by HPRT in January 2000. It is a teacher-student guide; an innovative and

radical course in its approach to healing victims of mass violence. The patient-doctor

partnership is considered central to the healing process, whereby the traumatized person

becomes a teacher and a physician become a student.

The course provides a theoretical framework, pedagogical method for training, and

reveals gaps in knowledge and practices within a single historical period. The course

objective is to provide for all medical doctors - as the most important healing profession

in Bosnia and Herzegovina - the understanding, appreciation, recognition, and use of

healing resources in additional to biomedical treatment.

The curriculum was implemented at the University of Sarajevo and University of Tuzla.

Initially, the course participants were family medicine residence at the Medical School in

Sarajevo and Tuzla, graduate level social workers at the University of Sarajevo

Department of Social Work, graduate level psychologist at Psychology School, and

graduate level Franciscan Theology School in Sarajevo.

The training process lasted for 16 weeks, or one semester. It consisted of lectures, small

and large group discussion, and practical work with traumatized person as a teacher. The

training took place at the five different sites mentioned above. More than 50 patients as

184
teachers,100 students, 50 faculty members, 9 course leaders, and 14 facilitations took

part in this extraordinary training.

In conditions of mass traumatization, the healing professions are always concern with

issues related to the best methods of treatment of trauma survivors. Usual

psychotherapeutic methods are not appropriate due to the huge number of affected

persons. Pedagogy of Trauma offers innovative method and model for the care of trauma

victims in the primary healthcare setting of post-conflict societies.

One-third of the participants considered Pedagogy of Trauma as the most exciting and

innovative learning experience they ever had. But at the some time one third of course

participant found course emotionally to be very demanding. Course participants were

received a certificate of participation, but more important, the course opened new

avenues in approach to healing of trauma survivors, in post-conflict society. Lack of

financial resources did nor allowed he course evaluation for the patientsí outcome.

Curriculum For Internet Based CME

This web-available course (http://cmeonline.med.harvard.edu) provides a series of

multiple-choice questions based on common clinical cases seen in primary health care

clinics caring for highly traumatized patients from culturally diverse communities. For

example, one case deals with a Cambodian woman who was tortured under the Khmer

Rouge and is then re-traumatized by life events as a refugee in the United States,

including the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001. Primary care physicians, as well as

psychiatric practitioners including psychiatrists, nurses, and social workers, are the target

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audience for this course. This includes health care practitioners in America, as well as

other parts of the world exposed to extreme violence. The participants will have an

opportunity to learn the diagnosis and treatment of the mental health sequelae of

terrorism and other forms of extreme violence in culturally diverse populations. The

course participants will also be able to advance their skills in mental health care of all

general medical patients who have had violent life experiences and are suffering from

common mental health disorders such as depression and posttraumatic stress disorder.

Overall Learning Objectives:

1. Clinical knowledge of the Harvard Program in Refugee Trauma (HPRT)ís 11-

point system for the mental health care of survivors of extreme violence.

2. Case-based clinical problem solving (a multiple-choice question based format

will be used for the cases).

Clinical Learning Objectives:

1. Develop the skills to elicit the patientís trauma story.

2. Identify the major mental health effects of extreme violence.

3. Diagnose and treat acute stress disorder, major depression, posttraumatic stress

disorder (PTSD), and chronic insomnia.

4. Increase skills related to the use of simple screens for depression and PTSD.

5. Enhance patientsí coping and resiliency.

6. Appreciate the proper use of psychotropic drugs in culturally diverse patients.

7. Describe the key measures for preventing practitioner ìburnout.î

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Research has shown that CME programs provided via Internet are as effective in

transferring knowledge as traditional forms of CME. Course completion provides credits

and Harvard Medical School CME certificate.

Harvard Training For Primary Physicians In The Kingdom Of Cambodia (1997-

1998)

The Harvard Program in Refugee Trauma (HPRT) was invited to train 104 primary care

physicians (PCP) in mental health knowledge, skills and attitudes by the Cambodian

Minister of Health representing all 21 provinces in the country. The Harvard Training

Program in Cambodia (HTPC) was established in 1994 in Siem Reap as a ìcenter of

excellenceî with three PCPs and eight family-child mental health workers, working in

collaboration with HPRT.

The training focused on the identification and treatment of both trauma-related illness

and serious mental illness in primary care using both Western and folk diagnosis. Two

or three PCPs from each of the 21 provinces were recruited to participate in a year-long

training which consisted of seven on-week sessions. Many traveled two days by

motorbike and boat to reach the training and compliance was near 100% in both years

(50 PCPs in 1997 and 55 in 1998, with one person not completing the training). The

training philosophy was a result of twenty years of experience working with Cambodians

both in the U.S. and border camps. (Lavelle et al.,1996).

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The training methods included a variety of activities including lectures, case group

discussions, homework, examinations and self-care techniques. The training content was

focused on basic concepts such as the history of present illness, interviewing skills and

case review, counseling and approaches to treatment, psychopharmacology, and mental

status examination. DSM-IV diagnosis and Cambodian Community diagnosis, i.e. local

folk diagnosis which HPRT calls Categories of Emotional Distress (CED), were

presented together as a major innovation of the course. (Mollica et al., 1998) Also, PCPs

were taught how to use screening instruments for depression, anxiety and trauma-related

illness (Harvard Trauma Questionnaire and Hopkins Symptom Checklist-25) both

validated in Cambodian language. (Mollica et al., 1992; Mollica et al., 1997).

Finally, all 104 PCPs upon successful completion of the course and final examination

were awarded a certification of participation from the Harvard School of Public Health

and the Cambodian Ministry of Health. All PCP participants were evaluated regarding

their confidence levels before, after and a two-year follow-up; there was a significant

improvement in PCP confidence in all confidence areas of medical and psychiatric

procedures (counselling, medical evaluation, prescribing medications, psychiatric

diagnosis, assessing risk for violent, traditional treatments and treating trauma victims

(Henderson et al., 2004).

Harvard Training For Primary Care Providers In Bosnia-Herzegovina (2000-2001)

In 1999, HPRT was funded by the World Bank Post-Conflict Unit to build upon the

Bank's WVR (War victim rehabilitation) project in BiH to further the development of

mental health care to the general population through primary health care services. This

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project was piloted in one country region (Central Bosnia Canton) to serve as a model for

other cantons in BiH and throughout the country, and to guide the Bank's strategies on

the implementation of this model in societies devastated by mass violence.

Health authorities in BiH for a long time, did not recognize primary health care

practitioners as mental health providers. Although most BiH patients were seeking help

for their emotional and mental complains in primary care. Primary health workers

themselves were significantly exposed to emotional and mental problems imposed by the

war. Hodgetts et al. (2002) found that 18% of the candidates for specialization studies in

family medicine met criteria for PTSD.

HPRT's survey (2000) of 116 PCPs, almost all of whom were primary health care

physicians (general practitioners, pediatricians, occupational medicine specialist,

gynecologists) practicing in the area revealed their inability to identify, treat and refer the

patients with mental health disorders. HPRT's provider survey revealed the following:

- 65% of the PCPs were not able to make DSM-IV (ICD-10);

- PCPs reported very low confidence in treatment of mental health crises

(suicidal patients, patient threatening themselves or others);

- PCPs reported almost no or very low confidence in treatment of different

groups of traumatized patients (e.g. sexually violated patients);

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 - 33% of PCPs did not have any information about new mental health services

which government built to decrease the mental health consequences of mass

violence;

After the needs assessment was completed, HPRT designed a culturally sensitive training

curriculum that included majority of physicians in primary health care in selected area

(Central Bosnia Canton). Training was undertaken with a special focus on medical

interviews, recognition and treatment of major depression, trauma-related mental health

problems and symptoms, specific vulnerable groups and case management.

During the training, the physicians were exposed to measuring instruments for mental

health, primary care mental health diagnostic criteria, detailed information for

administration of psychotropic drugs, counseling methods, and referral guidelines. The

training was organized mostly in the form of lectures and workshops. A post-training

evaluation demonstrated the efficacy of training in increasing participants' self-

confidence in identifying and treating mental health problems. This study revealed that

primary health care physicians could be successfully trained to be able to identify, treat

and refer most frequent mental health and trauma related problems. All participants

received a certification from HPRT and Ministry of health of Federation of BiH. The

course, by itsí content and format, served as an example of CME education in post-

conflict society.

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Toolkit For Healing Victims Of Mass-Violence

Toolkit for healing victims of mass-violence is a package of comprehensive training

materials for primary health care providers in which basic principles for care victims of

mass violence are provided and described.

Toolkit consists of:

- pocket card with 11 steps for clinical care

- short brochure in which these 11 steps are described in more detailed way

- instruments for simple screen for the pressure and PTSD

- brochure with 29 articles relevant for trauma assessment treatment and management

- CD Rom.

Simple and detailed guideline for use of drugs in treatment of depression, PTSD, general

anxiety, insomnia is provided. Special attention is given to assessment and treatment of

certain types of traumatic experiences, like torture head injury, rape, sexual violence, and

loss of child, spouses, or close relatives that may have potentially negative and prolonged

impact.

The toolkit was developed after the September 11 2002, terrorist attack of the USA, to

prepare local PCPs (primary care physicians) to deal with the acute and long-term mental

health effects of terrorism. It can be customized for uses in different types of mental

health environments characterised by extreme violence. This tool kit is a reliable clinical

tool with precise treatment instructions including all steps from history taking to closing

of treatment and patientís discharge. Toolkit is self-teaching material primarily addressed

to health care professionals in primary care setting.

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MAJOR OUTCOMES AND INDICATORS

Review of the scientific literature on the training outcomes reveal that most evaluations

are focused on measuring satisfaction and conviction of training participants. Evaluation

of HPRT training experiences in Cambodia and BiH were similarly focused on

measuring participantsí satisfaction and increased self-confidence in patient treatment. A

post-training evaluation demonstrated the effectiveness of training in increasing

participants' self-confidence in identifying and treating mental health problems. Similar

to other scientific results HPRT evaluation studies revealed that primary health care

physicians could be successfully trained to identify, treat and refer most frequent mental

health and trauma related problems. The significant increase in physiciansí self-

confidence was achieved in all the training areas. But like most CME training throughout

the world, HPRT did not directly measure patient outcomes. In the case of HPRT, lack of

funding resources was a major barrier for measuring patient outcomes. However, in the

first year after the training in BiH, the number of patients with mental health disorders

who were referred by the primary health care physicians in the region increased three

times.

The influence of HPRT trainings in Cambodia and BiH that can be emphasized is their

positive impact on health reforms in these countries. In Cambodia, the Ministry of Health

placed psychotropic drugs on their essential drug list, and five years later continued to

supply psychotropic drugs to HPRTís trained PCPís in each province. In B-H during the

training a forum for dialogue between the health care staff and decision makers in the

existing health policy was established. The dialogue was focused on all aspects of health

reform, including mental health care. The HPRT project went further in helping to

192
overcome problems associated with the health reform process, and has served to

demonstrate how an expanded role for health care professionals at the primary level can

contribute to health care and the health care system in general.

The magnitude of the health, social, economic and political consequences of mass

violence in a global community demands the economic and practical justification of all

training efforts. Measuring of economic and reconciliation indices are complicated and

expensive. The use of randomized clinical trials (RCTs) in evaluation of training of

mental health in post-conflict societies would be ideal. However, measuring economic

and reconciliation outcomes, is even more complicated and more expensive. There is

considerable room for scientific research in the field of CME training outcomes in the

mental health field.

The model of CME presented in figures 1 and 2, show that three major outcomes in post-

conflict societies can be identified: (1) patient outcomes, i.e. improved health status of

patients as result of better treatment (better treatment as result of increased knowledge

and skills of professionals obtained through CME trainings), (2) economic outcomes, i.e.

increased involvement of successfully treated patients in real economic life, (3)

reconciliation outcome, i.e. increased social cohesion and participation of patients in

civic activities. Public indicators for the levels of mental illness are not well established.

Even when available, mental health statistics based on prevalence of particular disordersí

and suicide rates in general population, cannot provide the right insight into mental

193
health situation. Further research will be necessary to establish reliable indicators for

mental health that can be used to show the relationship between treatment outcomes and

mental health indicators. The relationship between mental health indices and economic

and reconciliation outcomes are not established. Areas in which outcome measures to

evaluate the efficacy of mental health treatment and CME trainings are summarized in

Table 1.

Table 1: CME ñ outcomes and indicators

Outcomes Indicators (How do you measureÖ)

Patient Number of patients referred to psychiatric
services
Number of patients treated
Increase of number of successfully cured
patients
Decrease of number of suicides (ratio/
patients as population)
Decrease of number of drug addicts (ratio/
patients as population)
Decrease of number of alcohol addicts
(ratio/ patients as population)
Economic Increase in patientsí employment
Increase of patient salaries - average (for
officially employed patients)
Increase of patient income generated
activities
Increase of patients as entrepreneurs
Type of jobs patients performed
Reconciliation Increase number of returned families to
pre-war destinations
Degree of participations of returned people
in society (all aspects)
Increase delivery of health services to
minorities
Decrease number of interpersonal conflicts
with ethnic background

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FUTURE RESEARCH AGENDA

Research on CME education in post-conflict societies is mostly focused on measuring

impact of different CME presentation formats on training participantsí satisfaction and

conviction. This is still the most superficial level of measuring training outcomes. It is

obvious that the most important aspects of CME education are not covered by current

research. Against this background, the future research in CME should be directed to the

following areas:

- Need assessment of relevant subjects for national curricula recommendations

- Standardization of curricula for different formats of CME

- Randomized clinical trails - CME impact on patient outcome

- CME impact on decrease of high-risk behavior

- CME impact on health care costs

- CME impact on quality of mental health services

- CME impact on increase of patient economical status

- CME impact on employment rate

CONCLUSION

Millions of people throughout the world suffer from collective violence. It is the reason

why ìÖcollective violence, in its multiple forms, receives a high degree of public

attention.î (WHO, Report 2002).

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One possible way to respond to the problem of mass violence is dissemination and

implementation of new knowledge about negative health and mental health impact of

mass violence on individuals and societies. Well-organized, state regulated, contextually

and culturally customized system of CME can contribute to better outcomes of patientsí

healing in post-conflict countries.

It seems reasonable that CMEs through good health outcomes can have positive impact

on economic recovery and reconciliation process. Future research should be focused both

on improvement of quality of CME and itsí influence on economic recovery and

reconciliation of affected society.

196
REFERENCES

1. Henderson DC, Mollica R, Tor S, et al. Lavelle J, Hayden DL, Building Primary
CarePractitionersí Confidence in Mental Health Skills in a Post-Conflict Society:
A Cambodian Example: International Congress of Biological Psychiatry, Sydney,
Australia, 2004.

2. Hodgetts G, Broers T, Godwin M, Bowering E, Hasanovic M. Post-traumatic

stress disorder among family physicians in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Fam Pract.
2003 Aug; 20(4):489-91.

3. Geoffrey R Norman, Susan I Shannon, Michael L Marrin. The need for needs
assessment in continuing medical education. BMJ, April 24, 2004; volume 328:
999-1001.

4. Davis, K. Exploring the intersection between cultural competency and managed

behavioral health care policy: Implications for state and county mental health
agencies. Alexandria, VA: national Technical Assistance Center for State mental
Health Planning. Found October 26, 2004, at
http://cecp.air.org/cultural/Q_integrated.htm

5. Institute for Public Health, Middle Bosnia Canton, Annual report, 2003.

6. Jonsen AR, Braddock CH, Edwards KA. Professionalism: Ethical topic in

Medicine. University of Washington, 1998. Found October 5, 2004 at
http://eduserv.hscer.washington.edu/bioethics/topics/profes.htlm

7. Krug E G, Dahlberg LL, Mercy JA, Zwi AB, Lozano R (eds). World report on
violence and health. Geneva: World health Organization, 2002. Found July 27,
2004 at:
http://www.who.int/violence_injury_prevention/violence/world_report/en/full_en
.pdf

8. Lavelle J, Tor S, Mollica RF, Allden K, Potts L, (eds.). Harvard Guide to Khmer
Mental Health. Boston: Harvard Program in Refugee Trauma, 1996.

9. Mazmanian Paul E. Refelection, information, and approaches to improvement.

Journal of Continuing Education in the health professions. January 1, 2004;
vol24, issue 1

10. Mollica RF, Caspi-Yavin Y, Bollini P, Truong T, Tor S, Lavelle J. The Harvard
Trauma Questionnaire: Validating a Cross-Cultural Instrument for Measuring
Torture, Trauma and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in Indochinese Refugees. J
Nerv Ment Disease. 1992; 180:111-116.

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11. Mollica RF, Tor S, Lavelle J. Pathways to Healing: Viewmaster Guide to Khmer
Mental Health, 1998.

12. Mollica RF, Wyshak G, de Marneffe D, Khuon F, Lavelle J. Indochinese

Versions of the Hopkins Symptom Checklist-25: A Screening Instrument for the
Psychiatric Care of Refugees. Am J Psychiatry. 1987; 144: 497-500.

13. Morisson J: Research issues in CPD, Lancet, 8/2/2003, Vol 362 Issue 9381, p.
410

14. Robertson Mary Kathryn, Umble Karl E, Cervero Ronald M. Ipmact studies in
continuing education for health professionals: update. Journal of Continuing
Education in Health Professions. Summer 2003; vol. 23 issue 3: 146

15. Wutoh R, Bore SA Balas EA. Internet -based continuing medical education,
Journal of Continuing Education in Health Professions. 2004 Winter; (1): 20-30

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 CHAPTER 10

ROLE OF THE WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION IN MENTAL HEALTH

POST-CONFLICT RECOVERY:
ASSISTING GOVERNMENTS TO DEVELOP OR RECONSTRUCT MENTAL
HEALTH SERVICES

Mark van Ommeren, PhD, Benedetto Saraceno, MD

and Shekhar Saxena, MD, DAB, MRCPsych

ABSTRACT

In this chapter, the authors describe the role of the World Health Organization (WHO) in
mental health post-conflict recovery. The chapter covers the mandate and structure of
WHO, mental health activities by the WHO Department of Mental Health and Substance
Abuse, WHO-supported principles and strategies in mental health post-conflict recovery,
and available WHO technical assistance. The chapter outlines a public mental health
approach to make very basic mental health services broadly available in post-conflict
countries.

INTRODUCTION

The mental health of populations who have survived conflict is increasingly seen as an

important area requiring intervention. Attention to post-conflict mental health may be

explained by a combination of co-occurring factors. Over the last 25 years, mental

health professionals have become enormously interested in psychological trauma. This

interest has led to numerous research programs, including the generation of converging

evidence that exposure to highly stressful events and loss are sizeable risk factors for

many mental problems, including various mood and anxiety disorders, in post-conflict

countries (de Jong et al, 2003). At the same time it has become well-known that mental

disorder throughout the world tends to generate an enormous burden on individuals,

families, and communities not only in terms of mental suffering but also in terms of

199
disability and associated financial costs (World Health Organization [WHO], 2001a).

Furthermore, it is now established that mental disorders - more often than not - can be

treated effectively if appropriate services are made available (WHO, 2001a). In short, the

increase in attention to post-conflict mental health may be explained by increased

awareness of the potential impact of conflict on mental health and by increased

awareness of the burden and treatment possibilities for mental disorder.

The growing interest to address mental health in post-conflict situations should be seen

in context of a range of challenges. Only sparse human and financial resources are

directed to mental health care by most national governments (WHO, 2001b).

Governments in middle and low income countries frequently allocate the bulk of their

very limited financial mental health resources to maintaining, renovating, or building

custodial mental hospitals, where long-term treatment tends to be ineffective, or, worse,

harmful and in violation of human rights. There are no formal (conventional/ modern/

allopathic) mental health services in most communities in resource-poor countries.

International aid directed towards post-conflict mental health recovery is typically too

short-term and too superficial to have a long-term meaningful impact. The bulk of aid is

only directed to those countries that are, at least temporarily, in the media spotlight.

The focus of mental health humanitarian aid immediate after conflict is all too often

exclusively on (short-term) emergency relief, rather than on (re)construction (medium

and long-term development). An exclusive focus on relief in emergencies may make

sense for some sectors but such exclusive focus may not be appropriate for the mental

health sector. Mental health problems, when serious, are often chronic in nature.

200
Although natural recovery occurs for a sizeable group, people who develop chronic

common mental disorders (i.e., mood and anxiety disorders) as a result of the conflict

need ongoing access to community mental health services. Pre-existing mental health

services, when destroyed by the conflict, need to be reconstructed, which can take a

number of years. The interest in mental health and the availability of external financial

resources for mental health care is for most post-conflict countries a unique and

unprecedented possibility to develop a community mental health system to ensure

enduring access to care for all people with serious mental health problems. Some early

interventions (see below) are commendable but the bulk of increase in resources for

mental health care in post-conflict countries may be best directed towards

(re)construction of community mental health services.

In this chapter, we will focus on the role, tools and recommendations of the World

Health Organization (WHO) to assist countries in mental health post-conflict recovery.

We start with describing WHO's structure and mandate. This section is followed by a

description of mental health activities by WHO, with a focus on activities by the

Department of Mental Health and Substance Abuse. The next section describes WHO's

recommendations in terms of principles and strategies for intervention in post-conflict

countries. Finally, we describe WHO technical assistance available to post-conflict

countries.

WHO: STRUCTURE AND MANDATE

WHO is the United Nations specialized agency for health. The WHO Secretariat

consists of Headquarters in Geneva; six Regional Offices (in the Africa Region, the

201
Americas Region, the Eastern Mediterranean Region, the Europe Region, the South-East

Asia Region, and the Western Pacific Region); and more than 140 Country and Liaison

Offices throughout the world. The WHO Secretariat has six core functions: 1

• Articulating consistent, ethical and evidence-based policy and advocacy positions

• Managing information by assessing trends and comparing performance; setting

the agenda for and stimulating research and development

• Catalyzing change through technical and policy support, in ways that stimulate

cooperation and action and help to build sustainable national and inter-country

capacity

• Negotiating and sustaining national and global partnerships

• Setting, validating, monitoring and pursuing the proper implementation of norms

and standards

• Stimulating the development and testing of new technologies, tools and

guidelines for disease control, risk reduction, health care management, and

service delivery.

These core functions reflect WHO's role as a technical agency with primarily normative

functions. WHO is neither- an implementing agency (e.g., running health services) nor a

financing agency.

At the global level, WHO is governed by representatives of Ministries of Health; while at

the country level, WHO serves Ministries of Health. WHO is governed by 192 Member

States through the World Health Assembly. The World Health Assembly is composed of

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Ministers of Health from the 192 countries. At the national level, WHO Country Offices

tend to work in very close collaboration with countries' Ministries of Health. WHO's

strong relationships with Ministries of Health is essential to understand the agency's

comparative advantage when providing assistance to governments. Another WHO

comparative advantage is that multilateral aid - compared to bilateral aid - is less likely

to introduce a biased agenda when assisting countries in key areas such as national

policy, legislation, and national-level planning. The raison d'Ítre of United Nations

agencies is to represent a vision supported by a range of countries.

Mental Health at WHO

Mental health activities are organized by the WHO Secretariat through (a) professionals

at the Department of Mental Health and Substance Abuse at WHO Headquarters in

Geneva, (b) Regional Mental Health Advisers in each of the six Regional Offices, and

(c) selected Country and Liaison Offices. Mental health activities by Country Offices

are under the responsibility of the senior WHO officer in the country (i.e., the WHO

Representative). A few WHO field offices (e.g., Albania, FYR Macedonia, Liberia,

Mexico, Panama, West Bank and Gaza, among others) employ, ad hoc, mental health

staff.

The Department of Mental Health and Substance Abuse aims to provide leadership and

guidance for the achievement of two broad objectives, namely: (a) closing the gap

between what is needed and what is currently available to reduce the burden of mental

disorders worldwide and (b) promoting mental health. Mental health has emerged as an

issue of major international public health interest over the last several years. WHO has

203
played an important role in the development of this interest in particular through the

2001 World Health Day, the 2001 World Health Assembly and the World Health Report

2001 (WHO, 2001a), which all focused on mental health. The Mental Health Global

Action Programme - which was endorsed by the World Health Assembly in 2002 and

which is led by the Department - is the culmination of this high-profile campaign. The

program employs four strategies: information, policy and service development,

advocacy, and research. These four strategies are fundamentally related to one another.

Information concerning a country's mental health resources to address mental health

problems leads to enhanced awareness and facilitates advocacy against stigma and

discrimination. Moreover, information and advocacy are prerequisites for the

formulation and implementation of integrated policy, plans and services. Countriesí

research capacity drives the generation of relevant evidence to inform the development

of services.

At Headquarters, activities related to mental health and conflict are led by the

Department of Mental Health and Substance Abuse in close collaboration with Regional

Mental Health Advisors and with the Department of Health Action in Crises. The latter is

the WHO Department with overall responsibility for health activities whenever disaster-

affected systems become unable to respond to people's most basic needs. The sub-

regional office of WHO/PAHO in Panama specializes in disaster mental health

preparation.

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WHO-Supported Mental Health Principles And Intervention Strategies During
And After Emergencies

The Department of Mental Health and Substance Abuse recently summarized its position

with respect to principles and intervention strategies during and after emergencies

(WHO, 2003a). The selection of principles and strategies was informed by a range of

existing consensus statements and guidelines by a variety of international organizations

and by a postal survey of expert opinion (van Ommeren et al, in press; Weiss et al,

2003). The eight principles that are recommended by the Department are: contingency

planning before the acute emergency; assessment before intervention; use of a long-term

development perspective; collaboration with other agencies; provision of treatment in

primary health care (PHC) settings; access to services for all; ensuring training and

supervision; and monitoring indicators (Table 1) (WHO, 2003a).

Strategies during the acute emergency phase (when mortality rates are substantially

elevated due to the conflict) and the post-emergency phase (when mortality rates are

more or less under control) are briefly discussed here. With respect to the acute

emergency phase, recommended early social interventions focus on access to

information, family reunification, maintenance or restoration of normal activities, and

active participation (WHO, 2003a). Recommended early mental health interventions

focus on (a) psychological first aid for those with acute mental distress in the community

(National Institute for Mental Health [NIMH], 2002), (b) care for urgent psychiatric

complaints at PHC settings, and (c) ongoing care and protection for those with pre-

existing disorders, including people in custodial hospitals who tend to be forgotten (van

Ommeren et al, 2003). Popular interventions such as one-off (single-session)

psychological debriefing and prescription of benzodiazepines are not recommended for

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the routine management of traumatic stress, because their indiscriminate application may

be harmful (NIMH, 2002). The above early intervention strategies have recently been

included as a Mental and Social Aspects of Health Standard in the recently revised

Sphere Handbook on minimum standards in disaster response (Sphere Project, 2004).

After the acute emergency, social interventions should continue, including the promotion

of functional, cultural coping mechanisms (Ager, 2002; Sphere Project, 2004; WHO,

2003a). Moreover, efforts should be directed towards establishing a more comprehensive

range of community-based mental health interventions. This would involve work

towards:

a. Ensuring that people with severe mental disorders (e.g. psychosis, severe

depression) - whether or not they are traumatized - can receive effective

acute and follow- up care in the community. Services may be organized

through community mental health teams working from general hospitals

or from community mental health centers.

b. Ensuring that mental health care is available at PHC settings. This may

involve teaching PHC staff in identifying disorders, treating common

mental disorders, and referring and following-up on severe mental

disorders.

c. Creating linkages outside the formal health sector by, for example,

training and supervising social services workers, teachers, community

leaders, and, when feasible, traditional healers in: identifying mental

health problems, basic problem-solving counseling, facilitating self-help

groups, and referral to formal mental health care.

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A fundamental public mental health strategy in developing community mental health

services is organizing services on the basis of defined catchment areas. A catchment area

is a geographic area served by the mental health system and delineated on the basis of

various factors, such as population size, existing administrative or natural geographic

boundaries, and transportation accessibility. By definition, all residents of the area

should be able to meet their need for basic services within their catchment area.

Organizing services based on the delineation of catchment areas is key to ensuring wide

access to basic services and is strongly preferable to organizing based on disease

categories (or based on specific vulnerabilities), which tends to lead to fragmented,

vertical services. Indeed, the development of a multitude of specialized trauma-focused

services should be avoided without first having a basic, functioning mental health system

in place. Trauma-focused care is important but is best integrated into existing systems,

most notably general mental health services.

Another fundamental public health strategy in developing community mental health

services is a focus on deinstitutionalization, because custodial hospitals tend to consume

enormous resources and typically involve ineffective, harmful care. This means

downsizing and eventually closing custodial hospitals by moving resources and patients

to community mental health services in a responsible manner so that patients become

part of society and at the same time start to receive appropriate social and medical

community-based care.

In terms of intervention strategies at general health services (including PHC services),

both medical mental health interventions (e.g., psychotropic medication) and non-

207
medical (psychosocial) mental health interventions should be made available. Rationally

prescribed psychotropic medication is an effective intervention for many people with

clear and present mental disorder. For that reason, generic psychotropic medication

(based on the country's essential drug list) should be made available at health services

that have appropriately trained staff. To avoid misapplication of the medical model, it is

important that staff receive supervision in (a) assessment, (b) rational prescription, and

(c) non-medical mental health intervention, such as emotional support, basic problem-

solving counseling, organization of practical help, and referral to formal or informal

social services. Ministries of Health are strongly encouraged to partner with competent

non-governmental organizations to improve the quality of mental health care within

general health services.

WHO COUNTRY ASSISTANCE

WHO has the staff, consultants, partner organizations, tools and experience to assist

post-conflict countries to reach the above goals. WHO mental health staff assist countries

upon their request with needs assessments, policy development, planning, proposal

writing, as well as project monitoring and evaluation. Moreover, WHO is able to advise

on interventions, assist in developing indicators for surveillance, and refer to competent

organizations and consultants.

A key WHO role is assisting governments in the coordination of mental health initiatives

(whether by bilateral programs, universities, or NGOs) that may flood countries after

conflict ends. Key issues in the coordination of a multitude of initiatives are: avoiding

208
duplication of services, avoiding vertical services, organizing basic services across

different catchment areas, and identifying and stopping harmful or ineffective care.

In terms of tools, the World Health Report 2001 (WHO, 2001a) provides science-based

advocacy to decision makers on the need and rational for building community-based

mental health systems and services. This document has been followed by an operational

Mental Health Policy and Services Guidance Package (WHO, 2003b), consisting of

interrelated, systematic modules to guide policy makers and planners: (a) to develop

mental health policy, plans and programs; (b) to organize the structure of mental health

services; (c) to determine the physical and human resource requirements and budget for a

service; (d) to organize mental health financing; (e) to improve the quality of services; (f)

to draft, adopt and implement mental health legislation; (g) to stimulate mental health

advocacy to promote the human rights of people with disorder and to reduce stigma and

discrimination; and (h) to improve access and use of psychotropic medicines.

Major further progress is being made through the WHO project on Assessing and

Improving Mental health Systems (WHO-AIMS) (WHO, in press). As part of WHO-

AIMS, the Department has recently developed an instrument to assess core aspects of

mental health systems (WHO, in press). The WHO-AIMS tool has been pilot tested in 13

countries (Albania, Barbados, Ecuador, India, Kenya, Latvia, Moldova, Pakistan,

Senegal, Sri Lanka, Tunisia and Vietnam) in 2004 and will be tested in a further 12

countries in 2005. The tool records baseline information necessary to develop national

mental health plans with context-specific, realistic aims (targets), as is currently taken

place in Albania and Viet Nam. Progress towards achieving targets can periodically be

209
monitored by the tool. Both WHO-AIMS and the aforementioned Mental Health Policy

and Services Guidance Package (WHO, 2003b) are applicable in middle and low-income

countries, whether or not they have been affected by conflict. For assistance in applying

any of these tools in post-conflict countries, please contact the authors. For a full list of

WHO's many tools in the area of mental health, please see

http://www.who.int/mental_health/resources/publications/en/.

Providing technical assistance to individual countries has become a priority for the

Department of Mental Health and Substance Abuse. The Department presently helps a

range of countries (WHO, 2004). With respect to countries affected by conflict, the

Department has recently completed a project involving two years of intense technical

assistance to the Palestinian Ministry of Health in the West Bank and Gaza in developing

a plan to re-organize its mental health services, which are highly fragmented and partly

institution-based. The WHO Office in Jerusalem currently provides continuation by

assisting the Palestinian Ministry of Health in implementing the plan. Moreover, the

Department recently assisted the Government of Sri Lanka by writing a 5-year mental

health plan for North and East Sri Lanka, an area affected by more than 20 years of

conflict (WHO, 2004).

The Department of Mental Health and Substance Abuse is available for advice to

investigators on research in post-conflict-countries. The Department strongly argues that

research should be directed to bring about meaningful change in services in low and

middle-income countries (Saxena et al, in press), rather then for basic knowledge or mere

210
publications. A possible research agenda for post-conflict countries is suggested in

Table 2.

CONCLUSION

Conflict may cause pre-existing formal or informal care systems to break down and is a

risk factor for a range of mental health problems, including mood and anxiety disorders.

After conflict some countries become recipients of substantial aid. Although funding for

mental health is crucial, a sudden surge of foreign funds for mental health can raise

issues regarding the most efficient use of resources. Numerous uncoordinated activities

are problematic, especially so in resource-poor environments if local professionals leave

core government mental health services and join different, often competing, international

groups. WHO's role is to assist countries to avoid low quality, fragmented care through

assisting in planning and coordination of services, including monitoring the quality of

outside technical assistance. The opportunities to assist post-conflict countries are

enormous.

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Table 1: Basic Principles

Principle Explanation

1 Contingency Before the emergency, national-level contingency planning should include

planning (a) developing interagency coordination systems, (b) designing detailed

plans for a mental health response and (c) training primary health care

personnel in basic, general mental health care and in psychological first aid.

2 Assessment Assessment should cover the socio-cultural context (setting, culture, history

and nature of problems, local perceptions of illness, ways of coping),

available services, resources, and needs. With respect to assessing

individuals, a focus on assessing disability or daily functioning is

recommended.

3 Long-term Even though impetus for mental health programs is highest during or

perspective immediate after acute emergencies, the population is best helped by a focus

on the medium and long-term development of community services.

4 Collaboration Strong collaboration with other agencies will avoid wastage of resources.

Continuous involvement of the government, local universities or established

local organizations is essential for sustainability.

5 Integration Led by the health sector, mental health treatment should be made available

into primary within primary health care to ensure low-barrier (e.g., low-stigma) access to

health care services for all.

6 Access to Setting up separate, vertical mental health services for special populations is

service for all discouraged. Nevertheless, outreach and awareness programmes are

important to ensure the treatment of vulnerable groups within community

services.

212
7 Thorough Training and supervision should be by mental health specialists - or under

training and their guidance - for a substantial amount of time to ensure lasting effects of

supervision training and responsible care.

8 Monitoring Activities should be monitored and evaluated through key indicators that

indicators need to be determined, if possible, before starting the activity. Indicators

should focus on inputs (available resources, including pre-existing services),

processes (aspects of programme implementation), and outcomes (e.g., daily

functioning of beneficiaries).

Table 2: Suggested Research Agenda for Post-Conflict Countries

Type of research Example

1. Mental health services Effects of mental health care of trauma survivors in

research general health services

2. Treatment effectiveness Effects of specific mental health interventions in people

research with common mental disorders

3. Qualitative social Effects of specific social interventions (cf. Batniji, van

science Ommeren & Saraceno, submitted)

4. Cultural epidemiology Identification of barriers to available care (cf. van

Ommeren, in press)

5. Epidemiology of Effects of trauma exposure on daily functioning

disablement

213
REFERENCES

1. Ager A. Psychosocial needs in complex emergencies. Lancet. 2002;360

Suppl:s43-4.

2. Batniji R, van Ommeren M, Saraceno B. Incorporating social science

understandings into disaster mental and social health policy. Submitted.

3. De Jong JTVM, Komproe IH, van Ommeren M. Common mental disorders in

post-conflict settings. Lancet. 2003;361:2128-30.

4. National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH). Mental health and mass violence:
evidence-based early psychological interventions for victims/survivors of mass
violence. A workshop to reach consensus on best practices. NIH Publication No.
02-5138. Washington DC: US Government Printing Office; 2002.

5. Saxena S, Saraceno B, Levav I, editors. Research for Change. Geneva: World

Health Organization, in press.

6. Sphere Project. Humanitarian charter and minimum standards in disaster

response. Geneva: Sphere Project; 2004.

7. Van Ommeren M. Psychiatric epidemiology for improved access to services. In

Saxena S, Saraceno B, Levav I, editors. Research for Change. Geneva: World
Health Organization. In press.

8. Van Ommeren M, Saraceno B, Saxena S. Mental and social health during and
after acute emergencies: Emerging consensus? Bull World Health Organ, in
press.

9. Van Ommeren M, Saxena S, Loretti A, Saraceno B. Ensuring care for patients in

custodial psychiatric hospitals in emergencies. Lancet. 2003;362:574.

10. Weiss M, Saraceno B, Saxena S, van Ommeren M. Mental health in the aftermath of
disasters: consensus and controversy. J Nerv Ment Dis. 2003;191:611-5.

11. World Health Organization (WHO). World Health Report 2001. Mental health:
new understanding, new hope. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2001a.

12. World Health Organization (WHO). Atlas: mental health resources in the world.
Geneva: World Health Organization; 2001b.

13. World Health Organization (WHO). Mental health in emergencies:

psychological and social aspects of health of populations exposed to extreme
stressors. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2003a.

14. World Health Organization (WHO). Mental health policy and service guidance
package. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2003b.

214
15. World Health Organization (WHO). Country projects on mental health: selected
cases. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2004.

16. World Health Organization (WHO). WHO project on Assessing and Improving
Mental health Systems (WHO-AIMS). World Health Organization; in press.

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 CHAPTER 11

WORKING WITH THE WORLD BANK AND OTHER DEVELOPMENT AGENCIES

ON MENTAL HEALTH IN CONFLICT AND POST-CONFLICT ENVIRONMENTS

Florence Baingana, MD and Betty Hanan

ABSTRACT

Mental disorders as sequelae of conflicts are becoming increasingly evident as more

epidemiological studies are carried out in conflict-affected countries. Depression, anxiety
and Post Traumatic Stress Disorder are among the most frequent mental disorders that
occur. This chapter uses the example of the World Bank, as a prototype of an
International Development Agency, to describe post conflict mental health activities.

The work of the World Bank and other multilateral, bilateral and UN Agencies is guided
by the Millennium Development Goals. All eight goals have a linkage to conflicts and
six of the eight have a linkage to mental health. Addressing the mental health
consequences of conflicts would thus go a long way to ensuring the achievement of the
Goals. The chapter provides summaries of Bank funded conflict and post-conflict
interventions in the sectors of Legal and Judiciary Reform, Health, Early Child
Development, as well as Conflicts and Emergencies, encompassing analytic, knowledge
products and operational activities. It provides a framework for linking mental health to
economic development. The chapter concludes with recommendations for further
research in this evolving field.

INTRODUCTION

According to the Global Burden of Disease (GBD) Study, mental disorders make up

13%11 of the global burden of disease, second only to infectious disorders (23%).

Mental disorders are a burden greater than either cancer or heart disease and greater than

AIDS, tuberculosis and malaria combined (10%). These three disorders have focused

world attention to reduce the 11.4% of disease burden they cause. By comparison

mental disorders are often neglected. The 2001 WHO Atlas of Mental Health Resources

indicates that although 70% of the countries of the world have mental health programs,

11
WHO: The World Health Report, 2002

216
62% of the low income countries spend less than 1% of the countryís health budget on

mental health.

While in every population, 1-3% have a psychiatric disorder, the number increases where

conflict is present due to post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), alcoholism, drug abuse,

and depression arising from conflict-related stress. A further group, maybe 30-40% of

the population, may experience symptoms such as sleeplessness, irritability,

hopelessness and hyper vigilance symptoms, which if it persists and becomes more

severe, interferes with the normal functioning of individuals. This group is not classified

as having a psychiatric disorder, but rather a psychosocial disorder, manifested as

domestic violence, criminal activities, school dropouts, and other anti-social behavior.

Lastly, following a traumatic event a large part of the population may suffer nightmares,

anxiety and other symptoms of stress. These symptoms are often transient and will

decrease in intensity and frequency over time. At the core of every conflict is insecurity.

This insecurity fractures social ties, breaks up families and communities, and displaces

populations. Further, insecurity and displacement causes the breakdown of social

services such as health and education.

Although conflict is associated with an increase in the prevalence of mental disorders,

there are few population-based studies carried out among adults in conflict-affected areas

and low-income countries12. Among refugees, it is estimated that acute clinical

depression and PTSD range between 40-70%. Epidemiological studies among IDPs and

refugees on the Thai-Cambodian border, in Algeria, Ethiopia, Gaza, and Uganda indicate
12
The Bank is currently analyzing the prevalence of depression among the adult population in post-conflict
Bosnia and Herzegovina and explore the impact of mental health and labor market productivity and use of health
care services. The Bank has just produced a discussion paper on Mental Health and Socio-economic Outcomes in
Burundi, based on data from 12 psychological questions integrated into the Living Standards Survey.

217
that 15 to 53% suffer from PTSD as a consequence of conflict. In Uganda, 71% reported

major depressive disorder, and in Algeria, Cambodia, Ethiopia, and Gaza,

psychopathology prevalence was 17% among non-traumatized, against 44% for those

who experienced violence. These estimates compare with less than 10% in non-conflict

countries. Children are the most vulnerable group in conflict settings. They are more

susceptible to shocks to their development process. These shocks may include violent

and traumatic events due to conflict or more indirect effects such as malnutrition leading

to stunting and cognitive impairments. In conflict situations, mothers may be depressed

or suffering from PTSD, thus unable to provide proper care or stimulus to their children.

THE WORLD BANK MISSION

The vision of the Bank is a world free of poverty. The Bankís mission is to promote social

and economic development and to reduce poverty. The World Bank, formally known as the

International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) was first conceived in July

1944 at the United Nations Monetary and Financial Conference in Bretton Woods in New

Hampshire, USA. The World Bank (Bank) opened for business on June 25, 1946. The

principle on which the Bank was founded was that many countries would be short of foreign

exchange for reconstruction and development, but would be insufficiently creditworthy to

meet all their needs by borrowing commercially. The first loans approved by the Bank helped

finance the reconstruction of the war-ravaged economies of Western Europe. Initial Bank

investments were in infrastructure, agriculture, energy, and other forms of physical capital.

Today, the Bank lends to the developing countries of Africa, Asia, Latin America and the

Caribbean, the Middle East, and Europe and Central Asia. In the past decade, the Bank has

expanded considerably its financial support towards investments in human capital, mainly

218
education and health and in the area of social capital. Most recently, the Bank has also

focused its activities on conflict and post-conflict-affected populations. The Post Conflict Unit

of the Bank was established in 1996 to provide grant funding to support countries affected by

conflicts in their recovery.

Although this chapter addresses the role of the Bank and other development agencies, the

focus is on the work of the Bank, in the hope that it will provide an example of how other

development partners could be engaged in this work. The work of the Bank and other

development and UN agencies as well as member countries they serve, are guided by the

Millenium Development Goals (MDGs), formulated in September 2000 at the Millenium

Summit. All the eight goals have a linkage to conflicts. Addressing the mental health

consequences of conflicts would go a long way to ensuring the achievement of the goals. The

MDG goals are:

1.1.1 Eradicate extreme poverty

1.1.2 Achieve universal primary education

1.1.3 Promote gender equality and empower women

1.1.4 Reduce child mortality

1.1.5 Improve maternal health

1.1.6 Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases

1.1.7 Ensure environmental sustainability

1.1.8 Develop a global partnership for development

MENTAL HEALTH AND THE WORLD BANK

A major economic factor affecting the development of conflict/post conflict societies and post-

natural disaster societies is the mental health of its citizens. In 1990, the Bank/WHO Global

219
Burden of Disease Study (GBD) revealed for the first time in developing nations the

importance of depression. The GBD found in its original survey that depressions was the

fourth leading cause of disability as compared to all other health conditions. The GBD

predicted that in 2020, depression would be the 2nd leading cause of disability in the world.

The GBD, however, focused primarily on non-traumatized developing nations. Recent large

scale epidemiological surveys have shown that in traumatized populations, depression can be

up to seven-fold baseline level of non-traumatized societies, while PSTD can be up to ten-fold

baseline. High rates of disability and premature death associated with chronic medical

illnesses such as cardiovascular disease are associated with psychiatric morbidity in

traumatized populations.

The Bank recognizes that economic and social stability, and human security are pre-conditions

for sustainable development. Conflict, within or between countries, results in loss of life and

destruction of assets. It contributes to social and economic disintegration and reverses the

gains of development, thereby adversely affecting the Bankís core mission of poverty

reduction. Among the many adverse effects of conflict is the impact on the mental and

psychosocial well-being of large parts of the population in communities affected by conflict.

These effects are often referred to as the ìsilent woundsî of conflict because they frequently

remain hidden, un- or under-reported in post-conflict needs assessments, and consequently are

not addressed in most post-conflict reconstruction programs.

The Bank has gradually recognized that addressing mental health is an important development

issue, especially in the case of conflict-affected societies. It recognizes that a major economic

factor affecting the development of conflict/post-conflict societies and post-natural disaster

societies is the mental health of its citizens.

220
The Bank has supported mental health activities since 1994 within nutrition, post conflict,

public health, early child development (ECD), and health systems development projects. In

March 1999, the Bank established a Position of Mental Health Specialist. The four key

objectives of the position are to:

• Generate and/or compile knowledge on mental health through analytic work,

• Disseminate this knowledge within the Bank and to the Bankís clients,

• Provide policy and technical advice and preparation of tools that facilitate the

integration of mental health components into Country Assistance Strategies, Poverty

Reduction Strategy Papers, and projects as well as other Bank lending and non lending

instruments, and

• Partnership activities with WHO, UNIFEM and other UN and bilateral agencies as well

as global mental health NGOs.

SUMMARY OF BANK-FUNDED CONFLICT AND POST-CONFLICT

INTERVENTIONS

Several activities supporting mental health have been undertaken by the Bank in the past

several years in the context of direct lending and through analytical work. The first such

activity was in 1994 through a project in Argentina with a mental and social development

component within the Early Child Development Project. Since then, mental health activities

have been supported in different sectors -- legal and judiciary reform, health, ECD, conflict

and emergencies, and social protection. More recently, the Bank has been working on a

Toolkit which provides directions for incorporating mental health and psychosocial

interventions into lending and non-lending activities for populations affected by conflict.

Illustrations of mental health interventions by the Bank are included below. More detailed

analysis of the more comprehensive activities supported by the Bank follow.

221
Legal and Judiciary

• Technical support to the legal and judiciary reform project of Sierra Leone to take into

account mental health disorders.

Health

• Activities related to de-institutionalization of people with mental illness in

Albania, Lithuania and Romania under various health sector reform projects.

• Support to Lithuania, Zambia and Trinidad Tobago to reform mental health services.

• Support to the Ministry of Health in Thailand for mental health reform.

• Technical support to the Afghanistan Health Project.

• Technical support to Lesotho in mental health policy development, community health

assessment and the place of mental health within the District Health Package.

Early Child Development

• Cognitive development component in the Burundi Social Action Project.

Conflict and Emergencies

• Integration of mental health into primary health care in Bosnia and Herzegovina by

training primary care physicians in the management of common mental disorders.

• Integration of mental health into primary health care in the West Bank and Gaza by

streamlining referral mechanisms, addressing childrenís mental health, and developing

an in-patient care master plan and a mental health information system.

• Mental Health component in the Turkey Marmara Emergency Earthquake

Reconstruction Project (MEER) through the development of a National Mental Health

Policy and the training of primary health care personnel.

222
Analytical Work

• The Burundi Living Standards Survey included questions on psychological well-being.

The data has been analyzed and indicates a prevalence rate of 36% for ìDistressî and

25% for ìPessimismî. Key findings were that poor mental health was more prevalent

in the regions that had been most affected by the conflict, there is an association

between poor mental health of the head of the household and school enrolment for

children in that household, as well as an association between poor mental health with

unemployment and increased morbidity13.

• In Burundi, In 2001-02, another survey, the Core Welfare Indicators Survey, was

carried out that contained a module that included the GHQ 12 and the Alcohol Use

Disorders Test. In 2004, a Risks and Vulnerability Assessment was carried out, which

included the 12 Psychological Questions from the 1998 Survey.

• In Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Harvard Trauma Questionnaire and Beck Depression

Inventory were integrated as a module in the LSMS.

Knowledge Management Publications

11. A range of products has been and will continue to be prepared. Examples

include:

• Defining the scope for public sector involvement in mental health,

• The mental health economics paper for the WHO Commission on Macroeconomics

and Health

• The interrelationship of social capital and mental health,

• The Mental Health fact sheet,

13
Baingana, F Dabalen A, Menye E, Prywes M, Rosholm M, 2004 Mental Health and Socio-economic
Outcomes in Burundi. (Draft) HNP Discussion Paper, The World Bank.

223
 • A social development note ñ Mental Health and Conflict,

• A chapter on children and conflicts in ìTrauma Interventions in War and Peace,

Prevention, Practice, Policyî, and

• A chapter on mental health in the disease control priorities in developing countries.

WORLD BANK-FINANCED ACTIVITIES IN POST-CONFLICT ENVIRONMENTS

The Bank-supported mental health activities in Bosnia and Herzegovina (BIH) through the

Bank Post-conflict Unit to pilot a culturally appropriate mental health program within the

primary health care (PHC) system of one canton of BIH, namely Travnik Canton. The

specific objectives of the three-year project which was successfully implemented included,

inter alia: (i) training and technical assistance to primary care providers (PCPs) so they can

identify and treat psychiatric disorders and physical disabilities resulting from the war trauma;

(ii) establishment of a network of PCPs skilled in mental health care and supporting each other

in the treatment of persons with trauma-related and other mental health disorders; (iii)

development with the cantonal Ministry of Health an approach to the provision of mental

health services integrated into all levels of the PHC system; (iv) produce sustainable results by

integrating this project into the BIH health care reform, including BIHís continuing medical

education activities; and (v) evaluate the achievement of objectives so that lessons learned can

be disseminated to other cantons and other countries in the region.

The Bank-supported Burundi Social Action Project included a community-driven ECD

component, covering cognitive development, health, nutrition and psychosocial elements.

Local psychologists assessed the knowledge and literacy of mothers in participating villages

and on this basis developed a training package, including a training-of-trainers manual, teacher

224
handbook and educational aids. Following discussion and consultations with the Ministry of

Education and key NGOs, the training package was piloted in several areas. An evaluation

was carried out three years after the project began implementation and the cognitive

component was found to have been extremely successful. Children who had been through the

Early Child Centers were found to perform extremely well in the first year of school. The

Government of Burundi has promulgated a declaration making it a requirement for all children

to attend Early Child Centers supported by the Community.

A six Country cost-effectiveness study of mental health and psychosocial interventions was

supported by the Bank. Preliminary results coming indicate that there is a return of US$40 for

every US$6 spent on interventions.

Mental Health operational activities in Rwanda, Burundi, Sierra Leone, the West Bank and

Gaza, Bosnia, and Afghanistan have contributed to drawing lessons on what can be done in the

area of mental health and psychosocial issues for conflicts-affected populations. The

following presents a summary of the lessons learnt from the activities. A full discussion can

be found in the Mental Health and Conflicts Discussion Paper as well as the Mental Health

and Conflicts Toolkit.

LINKING MENTAL HEALTH TO ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

Framework for Mental Health and Psychosocial Interventions

Taking into account the multi factorial nature of mental and psycho-social disorders,

interventions have to be developed with the collaboration and coordination of different sectors.

These include, health, education, social welfare, welfare of refugees and displaced persons

225
administration, and legal and judiciary sectors. There are also different levels of care --

primary level, secondary level, and tertiary levels. A third dimension is the different

stakeholders that have roles to play in the planning and implementation of mental health and

psycho-social interventions. These include governments, NGOs (not for profit), private

providers, and UN agencies.

In the majority of conflict-affected countries, services are focused on institutional care, with

public funds spent on tertiary hospital care with virtually nothing at the secondary level and

minimal amounts at the PHC level. This seems to indicate an inverted pyramid for funding

levels, opposite to that where the majority of people with the need for services are. The aim

would thus be to try to change the allocation of resources to better match the disorders burden

as is illustrated in the diagram below:

Diagram 1: Present Resource allocation, Disorders Burden, Ideal Resource

Allocation

Mental and
Present psycho-social Ideal allocation
allocation of Disorders of resources to
resources Burden match burden

Source: Mental Health and Conflicts Discussion Paper, The World Bank, in print
To achieve the re allocation of resources illustrated in Diagram 1, there would have to be a

strengthening of the integration of mental health into primary health care. This can be

envisioned as being on three dimensions. The first dimension is for the program components,

including coordination, standards and guidelines, monitoring and evaluation. The second

represents the three levels of PHC, primary, secondary and tertiary, and the third the three

226
main sectors providing care -- the Government, UN Agencies, and NGOs. Implementation is

not carried out by donor agencies, such as the Bank or bilateral development agencies. In

most country situations, these three dimensions are going to be relevant to the programming of

mental health and psychosocial interventions.

A dimension that is not included in this diagram is that of the multi-sectorality of mental

health and psychosocial interventions. There are often interventions in the educational sector,

within schools, to train teachers to recognize children that may be distressed, to provide initial

interventions, and to refer those that may require specialized attention. Teachers may also

need training on how to handle children that may have participated in conflicts, such as child

soldiers, since they would react differently to authority. Schools are also an excellent

opportunity for breaking the cycle of violence by integrating peace and reconciliation in the

curricula.

Another sector that has a vital role to play in the mental health and psycho-social programming

is that of Social Affairs. Often, womenís issues and childrenís issues are addressed in this

sector. This may include special programs that target victims of sexual violence, which is

often frequent in war affected populations, as happened in Sierra Leone14 or for situations

where women are severely discriminated against, such as in Afghanistan15. The social affairs

sector often has the role of planning and programming for orphans and vulnerable children.

This may include tracing and resettlement, which often involves a psychosocial component.

This may be done in collaboration with NGOs and local governments. For each of these

sectors, the three dimensions mentioned above would have to be taken into account.

14
Physicians for Human Rights, War related violence in Sierra Leone, 2002
15
Physicians for Human Rights, Womenís Health and Human Rights, a population based assessment, 2001

227
Another dimension is that of donors and the role they play in determining where resources are

allocated. In most post-conflict countries, bilateral and multilateral agencies play a significant

role in determining what programs should be funded and at what levels the implementation

will take place. For many post-conflict countries, the initial focus may be on infrastructural

rehabilitation. This may not take into account what the long-term plans are for the institution

or within the sector. This often contributes to a reinforcement of funding to tertiary levels and

minimal amounts to the PHC level.

In many of the conflict/post-conflict countries, the psychiatric institutions are often

dilapidated. Rather than investing in their rehabilitation, it would be best for the country to

determine what direction the whole sector and the mental health services in particular should

be taken.

Diagram provides a framework for the three levels of care for both mental health and

psychosocial services. There is a need to have complimentarity in the provision of these

services as well as referral both up and down the system. It may not be as effective to

establish a mental health program without the availability of psychosocial services and vice

versa. Each of the levels of care is crucial to successful implementation of these interventions.

Although there are no studies that assess effectiveness of psycho-social interventions and few

for mental health care in the developing world, and less for populations affected by conflict,

the diagram provides the current best practice as determined by NGOs and agencies working

in the psycho-social and mental health fields in relation to populations affected by conflict.

The need for cost effectiveness studies for such interventions is increasingly becoming

apparent and some agencies have begun to do this work. The Bankís Post Conflict Unit is

228
supporting a study on ëCost ñeffective Interventions for populations affected by conflict in six

countriesí. Preliminary results are promising. It is estimated that the cost of care is about

US$8 per patient and the return on this investment is estimated to be US$40. Further work is

being done to refine this data.

Diagram 2: Relationship Between Mental Health Care and Psycho-Social Services

Mental Health Care Psycho-Social Care

Hospital based care with specialized personnel, Residential facilities such as transition and
diagnostic and treatment facilities. This may be the rehabilitation centers for war trauma
Regional Hospitals and the National Referral survivors. Specialized and multi sectoral
Hospital interventions such as group therapy,
intensive individual therapy etc

Play therapy, expressive art therapy,

drama and counseling support provided
Provincial and district hospitals that provide more in a more structured environment usually
specialized care as well as out reach and support by NGOs. Interventions may be
to the PHC centers and workers. integrated into school programs

School based mental health care

Community based mental health
programs. Listening and helping, provided by members
Training PHC workers so they are able of the family and the community. The
to recognize, provide early intervention communityís own resource persons (CORP)
and refer patients with mental disorders. may be trained to provide early recognition
and referral.

Source: Mental health and Conflicts Discussion paper, The World Bank. In print.
Children and Conflicts

Children are the most vulnerable among populations affected by conflict. Children

make up 50% of the populations in the developing world where the majority of

conflicts are situated. Conflicts disrupt education systems limiting access to

education for the future leaders and contributors to development. One example is

that of the ìLost Generation of Youthî in Sierra Leone. Children, due to their

sensitive neurological system, are more susceptible to shocks in their

229
developmental process. These shocks may include direct traumatic events, or more

subtle shocks such as chronic severe malnutrition leading to stunting and cognitive

impairments.

USAID has gone a long way in defining who the vulnerable children are. This has

been integrated into the work of the Orphans and Vulnerable children (OVC) work

of the Bank. A framework adapted from that proposed by Anne Kielland is

presented at the end of this chapter.

Integrating Mental Health Into Primary Health Care

The integration of mental health care into general health services, particularly at the PHC level

was acknowledged by WHO in its 2000 World Health Report as having several advantages.

These include: (i) less stigmatization of patients and staff, as mental and behavioral disorders

are being seen and managed alongside physical health problems; (ii) cost-efficiency savings;

(iii) efficient use of community resources which can partly offset the limited availability of

mental personnel; (iv) improved screening and treatment, in particular improved detection

rates for patients presenting with vague somatic complaints related to mental and behavioral

disorders; (v) potential for improved treatment of the physical problems of those suffering

from mental illnesses, and vice versa; and (vi) better treatment of mental aspects associated

with ìphysicalî problems.

Integration requires a careful analysis of what is and what is not possible for the treatment and

care of problems at different levels of care. For example, WHO acknowledges that early

230
intervention strategies for alcohol are more effectively implemented at the PHC level, but

acute psychosis might be better managed at a high level to benefit from the availability of

greater expertise, investigatory facilities and specialized drugs. Patients should then be

referred back to the PHC level for ongoing management, as PHC workers are best placed to

provide continuous support to patients and their families. PHC personnel need to be trained in

the essential skills of mental health care to be able to provide these services. Mental health

training to physicians and nurses at health centers is essential to enable treatment of common

mental health and behavioral disorders at the PHC level. There is a need also to integrate

mental health and counseling into PHC to enable the largest number of people to get easier and

faster access to mental health services. The training of PHC personnel must equip the

personnel with disease-related skills to assess and be able to diagnose mental problems as well

as psychosocial skills like interpersonal skills, including simple counseling techniques and

listening skills. The Bank has been active in several countries to support the integration of

mental health into PHC and specifically to support the training of PHC personnel. As noted

earlier in the chapter, the Bank has provided financial support for this in Bosnia and

Herzegovina through the Harvard Program in Refugee Trauma and in Turkey through the

Marmara Emergency Earthquake Reconstruction Project (MEER).

WHAT CAN BE DONE TO IMPROVE MENTAL HEALTH

Depending on the condition, effective treatments exist and patients can lead productive lives.

It has been demonstrated that community mental health programs can be effective even in poor

populations. Public health interventions such as immunization and prevention of nutritional

disorders will help prevent developmental disorders. School health services, adolescent health

services, and maternal health services all contribute to the prevention of mental disorders and

231
the promotion of mental well-being. A life cycle approach shows how to integrate mental

health into other health services.

Where to Start?

! Policy/Program Development: Establish or strengthen the mental health delivery

system within the framework of PHC, community based rehabilitation and school

based health care.

! IED: Increase awareness of what mental health and mental disorders are, their causes

and prevention, and the availability of effective interventions.

! Training: Increase the numbers of health workers and other relevant personnel

(teachers, social workers, community based rehabilitation workers, psychologists) who

can recognize and manage or refer patients with mental health problems.

! Quality: Develop and implement standards and guidelines for the management of

common mental health problems.

! Establish or strengthen a support supervisory system.

! Establish or strengthen the referral system.

! Develop and implement a mental health management information system.

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR RESEARCH.

Some of the areas for potential research include:

1. Impact of income generating activities on mental health for population affected

communities. If conflicts lead to mental disorders and mental disorders lead to

dysfunction, is it feasible to invest in income generation activities? On the other hand,

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 poverty resulting from the conflict may lead to mental disorders, and investing in

income generating activities would in turn lead to a resolution of the mental disorder.

2. What is the role of mental health programming in peace and reconciliation programs?

Are these programs effective? What would such a program look like and what lessons

can we learn from evaluations?

3. Further research has to be carried out to standardize psychosocial approaches, study the

costs and the effectiveness, and develop indicators.

4. Evaluation of school based mental health and psychosocial programs for orphans and

vulnerable children. What are the models of best practice, what are the costs? How

long should programs be carried out for and how long do the effects last? As an

example, if children receive psychosocial support for 7 or 8 years before the age of 15

years, is this going to last them the rest of their life times, or would they require further

support in later years? What is the optimum duration as well as the most cost-effective?

5. Evaluation of mental health programs for conflict affected populations and

documenting models of best practice.

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 Table 1: An OVC Taxonomy: Conflicts and Mental and psycho-social Disorders Perspective

AIDS affected Conflict affected Street children Children in worst forms Disabled Children
of labor
Orphaned Evidence of spread War orphans are Some of the street Orphaned children may Conflict situations may
children of HIV within more vulnerable children are orphans end up in the worst forms increase the numbers of
armed forces to abuse, lack In rural areas, they of labor children with disabilities,
Orphaned children education, and wander around the In conflict situations, amputees e.g. in Sierra
more susceptible to lack access to villages orphans may become child Leone,
HIV/AIDS health services Likely to abuse drugs soldiers Poor health services may
Many parts of and alcohol, some are lead to polio, epilepsy,
Africa have double sexually abused cerebral palsy. Mental
burden of retardation
HIV/AIDS as well
as conflicts
Children Breakdown of Displaced and Children separated Children separated from Many children with
separated social support unaccompanied from parents as a their parents are at risk of disabilities are abandoned
from parents systems during refugees consequence of being recruited as child by their parents during
conflicts will lead to
Increase in the conflicts are at risk of soldiers times of crisis.
AIDS orphans not numbers of child ending up on the
getting support fromheaded streets
the community households
Children Living with Stress in the home Children running away Children living with
living with parents who are resulting from the from dysfunctional homes dysfunctional parents are
dysfunctional injured or conflict may lead to are easy prey for the army at risk for emotional
parents traumatized by abuse of the children disorders of childhood
the war do not get who will in turn end up
adequate on the streets
stimulation
Children Not possible to have Ex-child soldiers Children who may be Child soldiers Amputees

235
with needs PMCT initiatives in Ex abductees abusing drugs Abductees still under the Mine affected
beyond conflict situations Those in conflict with control of the rebels
parental care Children born with the law Girls forced to marry
HIV during Female ex-abductees rebels
situations of conflict with children

Adapted from OVC in Sub Saharan Africa, by Anne Kielland. This version first published in the Conflicts and Mental Health Discussion
Paper of the World Bank.

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 CHAPTER 12

POST-CONFLICT CONSTELLATIONS OF VIOLENCE AND THE

PSYCHOSOCIAL APPROACH OF THE INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION
FOR MIGRATION (IOM)

Natale Losi, PhD and Renos Papadopoulos, PhD

The conversations and stories that people construct and exchange in situations of conflict
are clearly important, whether they influence the conflictís resolution or, on the contrary,
contribute to its perpetuation. These stories are constructed within the wider context of
relevant societal parameters such as media reports as well as more specific social and
mental health theories. When these stories are woven into the context of an international
conflict situation, even the staff of international organizations that is working to
minimize the destructive consequences, often unwittingly, tend to get involved actively
in their construction and dissemination. This is especially the case for that group of staff
who are sent to work ìon the groundî. In addition to these co-producers and co-narrators
of conflict situation stories, there is an overarching constellation, a set, within which the
specific meaning of the conflict is constructed. This constellation consists not only of the
relevant societal parameters but also of three principal players: the aggressors, the
victims and the authorities. Using this constellation, one would be able to derive a
typology according to the unique dynamics of each given situation. In most cases of
conflicts, the international personnel tend to consider themselves as playing the role of
an overseeing, managing and pacifying authority, whereas, in fact, they can also be
perceived, according to different points of view and independently from their own
intentions, as being either saviors or aggressors. Unwittingly, many members of such
international organizations tend to contribute to the formation of a constellation, which
tragically perpetuates the very premises that gave rise to the original conflict. In other
words, by their very intervention, the international actors risk to perpetuate the specific
form of the narrative constellation of aggressor/victim/rescuer (cf. Losi, 2002, Kuscu and
Papadopoulos, 2002; Papadopoulos, 2000b, 2001a; 2002) As a result, the peacekeepers
or re-builders often fuel the very conflict they attempt to resolve with their intervention.

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 CONSTELLATION OF VIOLENCE

Aggressor
Social Theories

Media:
mythinformation

Mental Health Theories

Rescuer Victim

The pervasive nature of this constellation and more specifically of the triangle of conflict

has become the subject of study by many different disciplines. The anthropologist R.

Thornton suggests that:

Narratives of violence have a specific social and cultural function. By

narrating events, we link a series of actions ñ whether by chronology,
conspiracy or psychological predisposition ñ into a comprehensible
framework. In this way the violent event that has radically disrupted the
flow of normality appears to have been predictable, and the moment of
chaos that has challenged order is tamed (Thornton, 1999, p. 3).

In other words, when we ìclotheî an experience or a situation of chaos within a story or

narrative, we transform it, give it sense and, in a way we attempt to tame chaos.

However, this is not a neutral activity. As A. Feldman notes, ìNarratives not only

explain events; they are integral to how we decide what is an event and what is notî

(Feldman, 1991, p. 27). More specifically, with reference to destructiveness,

Papadopoulos observed disturbingly that ëWithin the cloud of the inherent

epistemological confusion and the anguish emanating from the unintelligibility of Ö

238
[these complex destructive phenomena], the theories mental health experts advance in

attempting to understand destructiveness may ultimately amount to being not much more

than ornate psychologisations and pathologisations which are intended to ease the

resulting distress. Thus, unwittingly, I would argue that we are used by society, as

experts, to explain away the disturbing complexity of destructiveness and replace it with

sanitised theoriesí (Papadopoulos, 1998, p. 459; cf. also Sironi, 1999 and Vinar, 1989).

In many international crises, like in the case of Kosovo, it seems that the triangle of

conflict (originally described by Karpman in 1968 using the terms ëperpetratorí, ërescuerí

and ëvictimí) tragically becomes the recurrent pattern. Characteristically, Bruck wrote

that ìThe human community needs to be split into perpetrators or transgressors, objects

or victims, and responsible authoritiesî (Bruck, 1992, p. 72). This well described

assignment into the various different roles tends to get entangled within every type of

organised intervention by the different agencies and NGOs.

The media exposure/transformation of wartime events, that was so particular to the

Kosovo crisis and more recently in Iraq, also allowed the journalists to co-produce the

diverse versions of this basic conflict plot. This specific function of the media, i.e. to

break up the facts and then put them back together to produce a telling story, has been

aptly characterized as mythinformation,1 a word which evokes the means by which

stories can be tied to objects, intentions and events within a strong blend that appears

true and credible because it is familiar, and it is familiar because it includes the

fundamental triangle: perpetrator /victim/rescuer. External (international, humanitarian,

etc.) intervention does not arrive within a neutral situation, but rather in one where

239
mythinformation has already and effectively fossilized the environment, interpreting it

through the variations of the plot of the basic protagonists: perpetrators, victims and

rescuers.

RESCUING THE RESCUER

One of the main tasks of the IOM (International Organization for Migration)

Psychosocial and Cultural Integration Unit philosophy of intervention is, indeed, the

attempt to alter the disabling effects of this stifling constellation.

However, to be effective in these complex emergency circumstances, it is important to

remember that the basic reality of this constellation is not limited either to the

specificities of the field conditions of a given conflict or to the strict time-frame of the

conflict. Indeed, this constellation lasts much longer than the duration of the actual

conflict and it extends to subsequent strategies of support of refugees and asylum

seekers, which are designed by the receiving countries, and it can even last for many

generations.

As Papadopoulos noted, in working with traumatized individuals in these settings, ëthe

Ö triangle of victim-savior-violator tends to keep perpetuating itself creating endless

variations with different people in the same rolesí (2001, p.8). Indeed, one of the most

destructive effects of this triangle is that it keeps re-producing itself in different

formations by either shifting the actors into different positions or by recruiting new

persons and assigning them to the existing three set roles. As experience shows, both the

victims as well as the rescuers can easily shift into the perpetratorís role when, for

240
example, they become tyrannical over others with their demands, which originally were

legitimate and benevolent. As international mental health professionals, our only chance

to modify this triangle is the possibility to alter and depotentiate the rigid role of the only

one component of this constellation with which we are directly implicated - the

ìRescuerî.

RESCUING THE RESCUER

Dodge the rescuer
ëDislodgeí the
rescuer

Become Aware of the ghosts of the Rescuer

Offer alternative ëDislodgeí the

solution to victim aggressor

To be able to break away from the debilitating effects of this suffocating triangle, those

who are assigned to the role of rescuer must be aware of the multitude of figures and

scenarios that weave its complexity. Only if the humanitarian workers are able to have

substantial awareness of the labyrinthic implications of their pre-assigned role in this

triangle (i.e. as rescuers), can they offer other members of the constellation (such as the

ìVictimî) solutions that are not repetitive and fatal; otherwise, the ësolutionsí they will

241
offer will inevitably reproduce the same dynamics of violence that created the initial

conflict.

In other words, it is by breaking away from the fossilized set pattern and prescribed

positions that the rescuer might help construct a future less exposed to the systematic

repetition of violence.

Every act of international co-operation, especially if it occurs in the context of

humanitarian intervention in a transitional situation immediately following a conflict,

and even more so in the field of psychosocial support, is susceptible to a series of pre-

assigned models, and ìghostsî. The word ghosts is used here to refer to the invisible

elements included in the complex role of any person in position of power over another

person. This includes the host of attitudes that are accompanying such a role, e.g.

the combination of pity and care. This term is used by EugËne Enriquez (Enriquez, 1980)

in relation to the ìeducatorî figure. Losi (Losi, 1983; Losi et al. 2001; Losi, 2002) uses

this word and notion of ìghostî to refer to the rescuer figure, in order to offer an

alternative to this rigid constellation.

The usual ingredients of these types of interventions are idealism and passion as well as

disappointment and frustration and these are what tend to create the fertile ground from

which these models and ghosts emerge. The attraction for this kind of work probably

resides in contemplating and sharing the desire of omnipotence along with the fear of

impotence; the wish to be (at least in intention) a bearer of life, and the fear of

(unwittingly) repeating destructiveness and inflicting further pain. Accordingly, it could

242
be claimed that psychosocial humanitarian workers tend to follow the following possible

models and ghosts:

1. One that offers a good model/form (a trainer);

2. One that heals and restores (a therapist);

3. One that gives life, enables and facilitates (a midwife, a performer of maieutics ñ the

art of giving birth);

4. One that interprets, bring about awareness (an interpreter);

5. One that initiates action, movement and change (a militant);

6. One that is committed to improving and repairing (a repairer);

7. One that is free of taboos and prohibitions (a transgressor);

8. One that acts unconsciously in ways that may produce disturbance in others (a

destroyer).

The coping mechanisms of individuals affected by conflicts, tend to activate and often

facilitate in the rescuers the enactment of one or more of these ghosts and it is imperative

to find ways to comprehend them in a deeper way. Based on the relevant literature as

well as field experiences, one of these ways would be to construct a tentative typology of

coping mechanisms that are engendered in these emotionally charged situations.

The ideas expressed here are based on the experiences of three field and research

projects. Two of them were directly run by IOM through its Psychosocial and Cultural

Integration Unit in Kosovo, Serbia and Italy among IDPs and asylum seekers

respectively in 2000-2001 and 2003-2004, while the third one refers to a research

conducted among asylum seekers in the Netherlands (Losi-Passerini-Salvatici, 2001;

243
IOM, 2004; Kramer-Bala, 2004). Based on these experiences, it could be claimed that

not only humanitarian workers, but also the refugees and asylum seekers themselves tend

to act and react in certain stereotyped forms which could be broadly described as

follows:

1. The drifter: who believes to have no chance to influence the outcome of events.

2. The hibernator: who avoids change and remains fixed in the current situation.

3. The fighter: who is always looking for ways of changing the situation.

4. The explorer: who is open to new and flexible options and opportunities.

Therefore, in order to comprehend deeper the complexities of possible permutations of

interactions between the caregivers and the care receivers, it would be instructive to

relate these two typologies. In doing so, the first objective is to show that if humanitarian

workers choose to adhere completely to any one or more of these set models/ghosts, they

are likely to fall into a trap which would perpetuate violence and destructiveness,

regardless of their personal selfless intentions to contribute to the creation of a better

humanity. The second objective is to show that it is possible for humanitarian workers to

adopt a series of possible positions that would enable them to reduce the risk of

perpetuating the rigid role of rescuer, thus releasing the other implicated players

(aggressors and victims) from the rigid bond of their reciprocal role as generators of

violence.

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Here are some possible variations of the set roles for humanitarian workers:

1. The Trainer: The trainer is interested in ìformsî and intervenes in order to re-form,

trans-form, de-form, etc. If the humanitarian workersí representations of themselves fit

within the common category according to which they view themselves as ìmodel

figures,î by implication, they deprive their interlocutors of their own experiences, their

difficulties, their anguish and their trial-and-error progress; instead, the approach of such

workers aims, unwittingly, to substitute the othersí experiences with a ìgood formî that

is fixed, that is repetitive and it is, ultimately, sterile. Enriquez notes that this temptation

is very common mainly among psycho-sociologists, ìin that they believe to have

realized, in the balance reached, a particular ideal that they wish to transmit, as is the

case with educators, who desire to reform those who were ill-formedÖî (Enriquez,

1980, p. 116).

2. The Therapist: In cases of humanitarian intervention after a conflict, it is easy to feel

immersed in a universe that is considered ìabnormalî and therefore to assume an attitude

that attempts to readapt the individuals affected by or involved in the conflict. It is easy

to feel a duty to restore them, to heal them of their ìbehavioural and emotional

insufficiencies,î and to help them lead a ënormalí life. This is the explicit or implicit

policy of most organisations that work with trauma. Implicit in their idea is the model

that they are dealing with an affliction that requires healing. Moreover, this model

- Assumes that the afflicted person had been in a stable state (healthy status) which

was then upset by external agents (in this case, the violence and aggression of war),

and that, by applying the appropriate therapy to such persons, their state of initial

health will be restored;

245
- Therefore, it presupposes a perfect reversibility of the organism: that once healed, it

will not feel the consequences of the ìillnessî (aggression).

It is important to reflect upon the roots of this model, this ghost. In fact, at the basis of

this restitutio ad integrum obsession, we find a very real tendency in our society to form

a dichotomy between the ìsickî on one hand, and the ìcare giversî on the other. This

model tends to be exported in international actions, when international actors medicalise

the social with each glance they cast at it.

Papadopoulos expressed this dynamic as follows: ëÖ inevitably our identity as mental

health professionals imposes on our observations the Ö constraints [of] Ö the

pathology-health polarity; this results in us combining the causal-reductive approach

within the oppositional narrative of pathology and destructiveness which then together

produce an inevitable psychologisation and pathologisation of destructiveness. By no

means do I wish to suggest or imply in any way that destructiveness is ënormalí or

acceptable. But is placing it on the ënormalí - ëabnormalí polarity the only way out? Ö

Perhaps the first step towards such a deeper understanding would be for us to appreciate

the fact that we are indeed trapped and imprisoned by and within these constraints where

the pathology narrative occupies a key positioní (Papadopoulos, 1997, p.460).

3. The Practitioner of Maieutics (Midwife): The objective of those who adhere to the

maieutic model is not to restore or heal but rather to give birth to or favour development

and maturity, to permit the realisation of inaccessible, prohibited or repressed potentials.

Implicit in this approach is an idea of man as essentially good. In this context, the

246
humanitarian worker will not try to impose form, but rather to share a bond of trust with

the interlocutors, who can let their (true essence flow), liberating themselves from the

elements that oppressed them.

The maieutic model, which idealizes human nature, has an important corollary in that it

also idealizes the humanitarian workers, who are then considered to be the incarnation of

goodness. The unique understanding and maieutic attitude that such workers adopt and

propose, imply an enhanced and idealized image of themselves and others, diverting

their gaze from the catastrophic situations in which they work.

4. The Interpreter: Essentially, the vocation of an interpreter is to interpret everything, to

find an interpretation, a cause and a reason behind every behaviour, action and

phenomenon. Often, these interpretations also imply justifications in so far as they tend

to offer the deeper motives behind the actions. One of the difficulties with this ëghostí is

the confusion between ethical / moral considerations and the intelligibility of a

phenomenon. In addition, behind this interpretive ìat all costsî stance there is a hidden

power dynamic; the worker feels powerful ìto be the one who has the right to speak

because he/she is the depository of knowledge, Ö., the one who will not be challenged

by the word of the other, but to be the one who spies on each word so he/she is able to

grab it, to stereotype, to minimizeî (Enriquez, 1980, p. 122).

5. The Militant: According to this ghost, the humanitarian worker believes that it is

possible to intervene everywhere in order to bring about social transformations. In this

role, such workers proceed by somehow comparing themselves to a kind of a prophet,

247
confirming a rather simplistic idea that evil comes from outside, that everything is due to

society, or to the part of society which plays the role of aggressor. Such an implied view

casts aside the many complexities of these phenomena, which include the existence of

destructive conditions, which give rise to unwilling (and indeed unconscious)

connections between dominator and dominated, persecutor and victim of persecution.

During our first training program (in December 1999) for psychosocial counselors in

Kosovo (Losi, 2000), a young interpreter pondering on certain events said, ìWhile the

Serbs were still here, everything could be blamed on them. Now that young women are

disappearing from the streets, we need to accept the idea that there is evil also among

us.î

It is evident that a Manichean interpretation of dichotomous reality facilitates the

creation of an environment that blends relations between the humanitarian worker and

those whom he/she assists / rescues, bringing them to an euphoric situation or to a

comfortable enthusiasm, blocking their views from a clearer vision of the obstacles that

they will have to overcome in relation to the various power relations, including that of

their own.

6. The Repairer: This figure shares many aspects with the previous one (the ìmilitantî),

but with a substantial difference. Similar to the militant, the repairer perceives society as

inadequate and guilty of imperfection, but unlike the militant, the repairer considers that

political and social transformations have objectives that are too vague and unrealistic

248
and, hence, dedicates his/her time directly to those in need in order to repair and improve

society.

The repairersí objective is to promote activities by which the community can be reborn,

through the reparation of damages suffered. They will sacrifice themselves for others,

will not waste time and energy, and will lose themselves in their work, which they see as

a true mission. In other words, such workers are not far from being almost missionaries.

The repairer ìdoes not want to be identified as a prophet embracing a cause, but, similar

to the militant, he/she feels also the temptation of sanctityî. (Enriquez, 1980, p. 124).

The question that needs to be asked of these workers is who invested them with this

mission? Then, will the act of restoring, helping and saving the ìvictimsî not help to

perpetuate structures of exclusion? What secondary benefits do those who thus sacrifice

themselves receive? It might be suspected that the repairer, through sacrifice, also

sacrifices the others, by being immersed in their problems, and ìdevouring themî with

affection. Those who live within the sacrifice, also live through the sacrifice and for the

sacrifice. In other words, the repairer, with his/her sacrifice, also sacrifices the others by

over-protecting them, regulating their problems, ultimately, alienating them from the

reality of their problems.

7. The Transgressor: Although this figure is part of the typology that Enriquez originally

proposed in connection with his classification of the educators, it can be adapted

fruitfully to situations of humanitarian intervention. Admittedly, the transgressor ghost as

a whole is not one that is encountered often in these situations. Yet, it is an important one

because elements of it appear more frequently. The fundamental characteristic of this

249
model is to favour the emergence of spontaneity, pushing of boundaries and direct or

indirect irreverence of the given, the institutionalised, the traditional, the accepted. In the

context of humanitarian interventions, this model ìexpresses a sort of megalomania of

being the father, the parent that generates the unknown and promulgates transgression

and generalized instabilityî (Enriquez, 1980: 126-127).

8. The Destroyer: The destroyer ghost functions, essentially, at an unconscious level in

interpersonal interactions following the defence mechanism of reaction formation. This

means that unacknowledged and repressed desires may emerge to make an individual act

in opposition to his/her conscious intentions, beliefs and ideals. According to Enriquez,

who refers to Searles (1978), ìThis kind of desire is present in every affectionately

healthy individual,î and therefore comes into play in every therapeutic or training

relationship. In such relationships, humanitarian workers following their conscious

function as ìhelper of ëunfortunate peopleí î and their desire to heal them may also

activate a reaction-formation according to which they may inadvertently act in ways that

cause harm to others. The intention to form and heal can be altered by the opposite desire

to de-form, break, and shatter the other.

We can understand this ghost in a more concrete way when we consider the oppositional

duality of action by humanitarian workers. On the one hand, they can provide those they

help with an incentive for autonomy and encourage them to search for their own

resources, whilst, on the other hand, they may also lock them within their own closed

interpretative system, leaving them with a regressive situation and dependency. The

swing from one to the other polarity is substantial at the external level, yet at the deeper

250
unconscious level these polar opposite possibilities are extremely close to each other and

the humanitarian worker may unconsciously flip from one to the other.

This brief overview shows that the humanitarian worker is very likely to be possessed by

one or more of these ghosts in the course of his/her work, especially if this is conducted

under stressful conditions in post-conflict environments. It is therefore advisable that

such workers devise conditions within which they can have the possibility to recognize

the complexities of these ghosts and endeavor to trace their impact on themselves and on

others. Otherwise, by offering their services as ìrescuers,î such workers are likely to

transform their interventions into dangerous situations that perpetuate violence.

Having discussed the various ghosts that condition the rescuers, it is important now to

examine the way that these interact with the various styles and attitudes that refugees or

other vulnerable people tend to function in such situations. Both rescuers as well as their

clients tend to have styles that vary in rigidity. By crossing these two styles we will be

able to identify potentially beneficial or detrimental combinations. The general principle

seems to be that when both sides have similar styles they would tend to multiply the

negative effects of their interaction. For example, when the humanitarian workerís

predominant ghost is that of a trainer (characterized by high degree of rigidity) and he or

she works with a refugee whose predominant style is that of a fighter, then this particular

combination is likely to produce an escalation of the conflictual situation; whereas if a

caregiver worker interacts with a drifter refugee, then the latter would accept most

willingly the rigidity of his or her worker.

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In the table below (Losi, 2004a) the two styles are crossed to indicate the degree of

potential positive or negative outcomes of these combinations. The positiveness is

marked as plus and the negative as minus.

Drifter Hibernator Fighter Explorer

Trainer + + --- -

Therapist + + --- -

Midwife --- --- - +

Interpreter --- --- -- --

Militant + + --- -

Repairer -- -- --- --

Transgressor --- --- --- -

Destroyer --- --- - -

The IOM approach as applied to the Psychosocial and Trauma Response projects

The Psychosocial and Cultural Integration Unit of the IOM initiated and conducted a

major project in Kosovo that lasted several years, immediately after the end of the war

hostilities. This was called ëPsychosocial and Trauma Responseí (PTR) and another

project is currently being conducted in Serbia based on the same philosophy but adapted

to the new and different realities and specificities. Both projects are grounded on the

acute awareness of the complexities discussed above. This awareness was operative at all

stages of the projects, from their conception to their final evaluation. Conscious of the

dangers of these ghosts, we endeavored not to introduce pre-fabricated approaches and

instruments to reach pre-established objectives; instead, our projects began with wide

252
and in-depth consultation meetings with local resource people along with international

experts. These consultation phases produced the specific nature of the projects, which

essentially consisted of the psychosocial support to a population traumatized by war and

its horrors, through the training of psychosocial counselors. Moreover, the training

courses were not pre-planned in an abstract manner and they were constructed on the

basis of consultation and feedback within the context of close collaboration between the

local resource people, the IOM Unit and the international consultants. We endeavored to

avoid the tendency to use exclusively Western European criteria in our training

curriculum; that would have meant falling into the contradictions and traps described

above. It was on the basis of this awareness and these collaborative consultations that

innovative paths emerged which included the use of community theatre work, Archives

of Memories and the community trans-cultural (ethno psychiatric) clinical approach

(Losi 2000, 2002, Kuscu and Papadopoulos, 2002; Papadopoulos, 2002). All these

approaches are based on the understanding that trauma cannot be understood and treated

as being exclusively a phenomenon that is confined within an individual and within a

solely pathological connotation.

The body-community theatre was the first component of the training and was intended to

facilitate the trainee counselors address their own traumatic experiences as well as to

enable them to develop group cohesion in order to form themselves into a good working

group. Specialist trainers encouraged participants to tell their stories of the war in non-

verbal ways and gradually these were combined into an actual theatrical production

which relied heavily on body expression rather than the verbal medium.

253
The Archives of Memory took this work further by collecting in a systematic way stories,

diaries, drawings, from the wider community with the main aim to deconstruct the rigid

narratives of helplessness and to develop enabling alternatives. The methodology used

was mainly based on oral history and other relevant anthropological approaches. The

trainee psychosocial counselors participated actively (under the guidance of specialist

researchers) not only with their own stories but also in the collection and systematization

of these stories.

The ethnopsychiatric approach is based on the principles of cultural sensitivity and the

active attempt to reconnect communities with their own (often lost or undervalued)

cultural traditions of healing. It was used in this project in combination with a systemic

narrative approach to enhance our understanding of the complexities of the various

overlapping systems and the way dominant stories or descriptions of key events and

experiences tended to restrict the potential and resilience of individuals and

communities, thus enabling them turn their adversity into positive development. This

means that, in effect, the projectís overall approach could be called ëethno-systemic-

narrativeí.

More specifically, trauma was appreciated as a highly complex systemic concept which

could not be limited to the psychiatric Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). This

understanding can be expressed in the ëTrauma Gridí which outlines the ëconsequences

and implicationsí of trauma along with its basic meanings and levels (Papadopoulos,

2004).

254
To begin with, it is important to consider the different meanings of the word ëtraumaí.

The common meaning of trauma (in Greek) is wound or injury and it comes from the

verb titrosko - to pierce. This means that the original meaning of trauma is the mark, the

injury that is left as a result of piercing. Papadopoulosí etymological investigations

(2000b; 2001a; 2001b) revealed interesting new perspectives: i.e. titrosko comes from

the verb teiro which means ëto rubí and in ancient Greek it had two meanings: to rub in

and to rub off, to rub away. Accordingly, ërubbing iní produces an injury, a wound,,

whereas ërubbing offí or ërubbing awayí has the effect of cleaning up a surface from

whatever it was marked on it before, like an eraser erases the writing on a piece of paper.

In the reality of clinical contexts as well as in post-conflict situations, the second

meaning of trauma refers to the experience of renewal, of the need to reshuffle oneís life

priorities; people who had been traumatised often express spontaneously this need for

looking at life afresh. This means that despite the painful and distressing effects of the

trauma, people may also experience that the very power of trauma can also have another

impact on them, e.g. making them revise their lifeís philosophy, appreciating more the

fact that they are alive, valuing friendships, assuming a new zest for new activities, etc.

If we were to apply these meanings to the psychological reactions in conflict-situations,

we may distinguish the following three categories of possible responses to trauma

(Papadopoulos, 2004). People may indeed be traumatized (in terms of being injured or

wounded psychologically), or react with renewed energy and zeal for life; in addition, it

is also possible that at least with reference to certain functions, they may not be affected

at all. For example, certain skills and abilities may not be negatively affected by their

traumatic experience. This means that such functions are resilient to change (even of the

255
negative kind) and they remain intact, despite the power of the trauma. Resilience is a

term that has many meanings. Here it refers to those functions and abilities that are not

negatively or positively affected by the traumatic experiences.

For completion, it is also useful to discern three sub-responses to the first category (of

wound and injury). It could be argued that people respond to traumatic experiences in

three possible ways within the context of being injured: (a) by Ordinary Human

Suffering (OHS) ñ for this kind of response, no professional intervention may be

necessary; (b) through Distressful Psychological Reactions (DPR) which again may be of

a transient nature and they may not require specialist attention. Internal resources as well

as appropriate support from their families or communities may help them overcome any

negative consequences, again without the need for professional assistance. However, it

should not be forgotten that there is a third possible response to traumatic experiences;

(c) people may indeed develop diagnosable psychiatric disorders, PTSD being the most

common.

Finally, the last category of possible responses to trauma could be called Adversity-

Activated Development (AAD) (Papadopoulos, 2004) and it refers to the group of

possible positive consequences that can be activated by the very trauma. The relevant

literature uses different terms for this type of responses, e.g. Post Traumatic Growth,

Adversity-activated growth, Stress-related growth/development, Perceived benefit,

Thriving, Adversarial Growth, etc. Essentially, AAD refers to the processes that turn

adversity into growth. People who had been exposed to severely traumatic experiences,

in addition to their negative reactions, they often also experience fundamental re-viewing

256
and hence renewal of their lives. Persons say that having come close to death they now

value life and close relationships, and they do not wish to waste their lives away but they

want to use them in a more consciously positive way than before.

All these three main types of responses (along with their sub-categories) can be observed

in individuals but also in families, communities as well as at the level of wider society

and culture. This means that if one wanted to examine the implications of trauma in a

conflict situation, it would be important to have in mind the totality of all possible

responses at all levels, as illustrated schematically by the Trauma Grid (Papadopoulos,

2004) below.

THE TRAUMA GRID

INJURY, WOUND

Ordinary Distressful Psychiatric ADVERSITY-

Human Psychological Disorders, RESILIENCE ACTIVATED

Levels Suffering Reactions PTSD DEVELOPMENT

(AAD)

Individual

Family

Community

Society/culture

PHASES OF TRAUMA

As discussed above, the Aggressor/Victim/Rescuer constellation occupied the dominant

story in Kosovo, and its pervasiveness did not leave room for other narratives about

257
either individuals or communities affected by the war. As Papadopoulos (2000b) clearly

describes, after an event that caused traumatic experiences, people and the community at

large tend to block their wider understanding of events and tend to fix their

interpretations of these events on narratives that focus on the traumatic episode/s. Such

fixed stories provide people with a certain meaning and identity that enable them to

survive. However, such stories tend to be extremely limited in terms of their complexity

and they also tend to be highly polarized. They tend to be fixed on the traumatic episodes

and hence they tend to undervalue (if not suppress completely) both the periods that

preceded and indeed anticipated the catastrophic events as well as the periods that

followed these events. Accordingly, the phase when the devastating events occurred

seems to remain fossilized and it is this phase that tends to fix the meaning of everything

else. This means that the totality of the different phases of trauma is suppressed under the

weight of the simplistic narratives of the imposing triangle of conflict

(aggressor/victim/rescuer). Yet, as Papadopoulos (2000b, 2001a, 2001b) emphasized,

there are at least four phases of experiencing trauma in conflict situations. These he

identified as ëAnticipationí (when people sense the impending danger and try to decide

how best to avoid it), ëDevastating Eventsí (this is the phase of actual violence, when the

enemy attacks and destroys, and the refugees flee), ëSurvivalí (when refugees are safe

from danger but live in temporary accommodation and uncertainty), and ëAdjustmentí

(when refugees try to adjust to new life in the receiving country) (Papadopoulos, 2001a,

p.6). Schematically, (Papadopoulos, 2000b, 2001a, 2001b), this can be illustrated as

follows:

258
 Devastating Survival
Events
Anticipation Adjustment

Before After

FROM INDIVIDUAL TO COLLECTIVE EXPERIENCES

To be able to help people and communities that have endured these shattering

experiences, it is necessary to create conditions that can enable different narratives

which, in turn, can empower people to reconsider their current dominant stories (often

dictated by the simplistic tyranny of the triangular constellation of conflict), to explore

the totality of their pain (not only restricted to one phase of trauma), and to activate their

resilience and their adversity-activated development potentialities. However, as the

Trauma Grid suggests, this needs to be done not only at the individual level but also at

the various other collective levels (i.e. family, community, society, culture). Thus, all

these collective forms need to be allowed to move beyond the reduction of all of their

resources to the ashes left by the devastating events. They deserve to be treated with the

dignity of their potentialities as well as of their suffering.

259
Therefore, it is important in our perspective to provide the means that these shattered

communities be freed from the oppressive simplicity of the conflict triangle and to be

enabled to access their resilience and potentialities.

The Archives of Memory, as well as the theatre work and performances are some of the

tangible ways that offer individuals, families and communities these potentialities. The

Archives facilitate the reconstruction of the complexity of the experience (in Kosovo by

Kosovars themselves), 1 thus avoiding dominant constellations. They offer the necessary

starting points, even in clinical work, to begin re-narrating, and re-story-ing (cf.

Papadopoulos 1999b) in the communities and families damaged by unhealed wounds and

deaths. The Archives of Memory offered less restrictive and more vital alternatives to the

fossilized story, frozen around the dominant constellation, which is maintained by the

tyranny of the phase of the devastating events.

On basis of the above, our recommendations to policy makers in post-conflict situations

would include the following:

1. Adopt a policy of ìselective inclusionî encouraging interventions of national

and international actors following approaches oriented to reinforce community

residual resources and resilience, avoiding a narrow medical/psychiatric

reductionism. All these approaches should be based on the understanding that

trauma cannot be understood and treated as being exclusively a phenomenon

that is confined within an individual and within an exclusively pathological

connotation.

260
 2. Set up a mixed (national/international) interdisciplinary committee, with the

specific task to develop guidelines addressed to define professional criteria for

an effective policy of ìselective inclusionî.

3. This interdisciplinary committee should coordinate the development of a deeper

understanding (in the context of the local specificities) of the implications of

the triangle of conflict, of the combinations of interactions of ghosts between

care-givers and care-receivers, of the Trauma Grid, and of the phases of trauma.

Above all, it would be indispensable that this committee ensures that there are

sufficient mechanisms for enabling reflection about all these processes,

interactions and complexities.

4. Adopt policies linking emergency with long-term capacity building. War,

conflict and violence, if not appropriately understood and addressed, will result

in long term and intergenerational suffering/pathologies.

CONCLUSION

It is important to clarify that the strong community emphasis of our approach did not

exclude or even minimise the individual experience. On the contrary, throughout, in our

projects we have endeavoured to locate these experiences in a context within which it

was possible for individual experiences to take on culturally shared and appropriate

meaning. Individuals are part of stories as well as they create stories (Papadopoulos,

1999b; Losi, 2000a). We not only give sense to our lives through stories, we not only tell

the stories of our lives, but our actual lives are the makings of stories. The IOM

Psychosocial and Trauma Response (PTR) approach (which includes the Archives of

Memory) enabled the emergence not only of forgotten, repressed and unspoken stories

261
but also of stories that were not even thought of before. Stories that often no one had

asked anyone to tell stories in the making, stories that were part of other stories, stories

unimaginable. Stories that can cause pain and stories uplifting that can heal profoundly

the wounds of the spirit. It is within this perspective and in this spirit that the PTR

projects emerged and need to be appreciated.

Finally, it is worth remembering that countries and communities, as well as families and

individuals, need help when they attempt to cope with very difficult circumstances.

However, the pressures of the post-conflict situations make it difficult to seek and create

the best possible conditions for this help to be offered. It should not be forgotten that if

such help is inappropriate, then it is likely that it may (inadvertently) worsen the situation

and contribute to furthering the conflict and suffering instead of ameliorating them.

According to our perspective, emergency and post-conflict interventions, in the field of

mental health, should adopt approaches based on the understanding that trauma cannot

be understood and treated as confined within an individual and within an exclusively

pathological connotation. Interdisciplinary action-researches are needed to identify the

best combinations of tools/approaches, which are culturally-appropriate in order to

reinforce resilience and stimulate further Adversity-Activated Development. In our

experiences, sensitive combinations of body-community theatre, ìArchives of Memoryî

within an ethno-systemic-narrative oriented approach to clinical work, have proved to

provide effective responses with long-term benefits in post-conflict situations.

262
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265
 CHAPTER 13

ROLE OF MIGRATION IN POST-CONFLICT RECOVERY

Marco Mazzetti, MD, Lorenzo Tarsitani, MD, Salvatore Geraci, MD.

ABSTRACT

The number of migrants, refugees, and civilian returnees in the world is considerable and
has increased greatly in the last ten years.

Each phase of the migratory process is characterized by numerous social-environmental

circumstances that jeopardize mental health adjustment. Certain risks related to
migration (i.e. the goal of migration, geographical and cultural distance from the country
of origin, social support, loss of social status, and others) play an important role in the
onset of psychiatric disorders. Protective resiliency factors protect mental health and rely
on individual characteristics and the conceptualization and realization of the migratory
project.

Scientific studies reveal the high prevalence of psychiatric disorders among those
immigrants submitted to loss, oppression, torture, and other forms of organized violence.
Those subgroups of migrants forced to leave home and exposed to the trauma of war
manifest high long-term morbidity. Moreover, post-migratory experiences
(deculturization, loneliness, exposure to triggering stimuli, loss of identity and social
status, racism, and discrimination) may worsen the situation and result in powerful re-
traumatization.

Countries that grant asylum should construct a service network providing trained
reception personnel, adequate medical assistance, suitable lodging, as well as accurate
and rapid procedures to recognize refugee status. It is extremely useful to promote
meetings between fellow countrymen, in order to protect cultural identity.

Forced migration should be avoided, and native countries should minimize the risks of
exile protecting civilians, giving priority to relations with humanitarian Institutions, and
favoring evacuation into the internal regions of the refugees native country rather than
their escape out of the country. Governments should promote psychiatric prevention
programs, facilitate contact with expatriate populations, and endorse specific repatriation
programs. Repatriation not only protects individual mental health, but also improves the
country’s socio-economical conditions and social capital.

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THE MAGNITUDE OF THE PROBLEM

The number of migrants in the world has increased considerably in the last ten years and

continues to increase; International Organization for Migration (IOM) for 2003 reports

approximately 175 million migrants (2.9% of the world’s population) and, by the year

2050, 230 million are expected. These figures do not include large numbers of

undocumented migrants; the total population involved in migration is even larger if we

consider the families and communities the migrants have left behind.

According to the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), at the

beginning of the year 2003, refugees in the world were 10,4 million, and the number is

continuously increasing. They are mainly hosted in Asia, Africa and Europe. Once again,

these figures do not include undocumented migration and some countries that do not

record all entrances. In the year 2003, the UNHCR calculated that persons of concern

(including refugees, internally displaced persons and a certain number of returnees) were

20.6 million. Furthermore, the population of civilian returnees is considerable and

increased from 500,000 in 2001 to about 2,500,000 in 2002.

MIGRATION AND MENTAL HEALTH

Migration is a complex and heterogeneous process comprising both pre- and post-

migration events; it begins with pre-migratory experience in the native land and

continues through migration itself and first adaptation in the land of destination, ending

with long-term post-migratory experience.

Migration from developing countries is composed of a series of intense difficulties and

barriers. Hence, migrants have to be dextrous, courageous, motivated and healthy

persons to overcome these challenges. Their resources have a protective role in migrants’

mental health and, along with other individual characteristics (gender, age, status,

267
personality, biological characteristics, coping styles, expectations, attitudes, moral values

and personal resources), they constitute a solid base to protect the migrant in the first

stages of migration. This form of selection is applicable to the so-called “pioneers of

migration”; in other words, those that first decide to migrate are highly motivated. This

condition ceases to exist in successive migratory waves (for example, in family

reunification) and for refugees, i.e., people driven from their native land forcibly, either

chased by others or escaping dangerous conditions.

Each phase of the migratory process is characterized by numerous, variable and

interactive social-environmental circumstances that can seriously jeopardize mental

health adjustment. The migratory process reveals the remarkable individual differences

in the vulnerability of migrants that depend on their pre-migratory migration experience

(Mazzetti, 1996).

Risk Factors

A wide range of factors make it extremely difficult to trace a psychopathological and

epidemiological profile of immigrants and identify related risk factors. An analysis of

evidence on migration and mental health (Bhugra, 2004) further complicates the picture

by describing numerous methodological limitations (such as different samples from

ethnic and migratory viewpoints; different research and assessment settings; lack of

long-term studies) that lead to contrasting data and to difficulty in extrapolating and

generalizing. Recent studies have shown higher rates of certain psychiatric disorders

among immigrants (for example, schizophrenia) and lower rates for others, as compared

to the non-immigrant population. Overall, however, it appears that immigrants with time

tend to regress towards the mean, i.e., achieve a mental health profile closer to that of the

hosting population.

268
What emerges from the scientific literature is compatible with our research and clinical

experience, i.e., some migrant subtypes have a higher risk for becoming mentally ill,

inasmuch they are exposed more to some contextual characteristics, which increase risk,

and in turn, explain the higher prevalence of certain mental disorders.

Although the potency of various risk factors and their interaction are presently unclear,

certain variables related to migration seem to play an important role in the onset of

psychiatric disorders. The goal of migration appears to be one of the most significant risk

factors. In the case where departure from the native land is voluntary and organized,

there is an objective, desire and the expectation of a better life, in other words a solid

pre-migratory preparation, the subject’s resilience increases. When migration is forced

and there is no planning, the subject is left with only the strength to escape, migration

has an unfavorable impact.

Psychological distress increases when pre-migratory expectations are unmet, and the

project cannot be realized. Geographical, but more so, cultural distance from the country

of origin, determines “transculturalization stress”. For example, the transition from

socio-centric societies (in which personal identity is mainly determined “to be part of a

group”) to ego-centric cultures (as in most western cultures are, where identity is based

upon personal characteristics and achievements), can traumatize and provoke what

anthropologists call “culture shock”. Transitions from rural to urban settings can also

cause culture shock.

The presence of family members or people from the same ethnic group or cultural

background remarkably increases social support, a buffering factor that protects against

stressor reactions. However, the same presence may constitute an obstacle to social

integration if the relatives and friends are not motivated to overcome cultural gaps

269
between their land of origin and that of destination. This phenomenon can be observed in

the second generation of migrants, when the family imposes their native land’s life style

and rules that hamper the natural social integration of the second- generation youths in

the hosting country.

The loss of social status is related to the frequent phenomenon of overqualified persons

carrying out an underqualified job and is accompanied by economical and housing

difficulties in the hosting country, which can damage self-esteem and determine distress.

The migrants’ health status can also be negatively influenced by the loss and/or grief for

what has been left behind.

Among vulnerability factors, individual characteristics also play an important part (figure

1):

1. Fragility of the person, that is, a personality unskilled to cope with

stressors/difficulties, and to build satisfactory relationships;

2. Fragile and/or rigid cultural identity, that is, a personality with a weak identification

with the culture of origin, leading to an inadequate basis to deal with the new reality,

or with a strong and rigid identification with that culture that impairs the flexibility

needed to cope with the new environment;

3. Pre-migratory psychiatric morbidity: these characteristics, apart from being

pathogenic, may lead to failure of the migratory project.

These characteristics, apart from being pathogenic, may lead to failure of the migratory

project. Factors such as trans-cultural stress (the impact with a new and different social

environment), loss of social status, lack of or inadequate social support (for example,

when family and community support the individual but prevent him/her from integrating

within the host culture) can interact with individual factors to negatively affect the

outcome of the migratory project.

270
Resiliency Factors

Resilience factors (figure 2) rely on individual characteristics. These are elements related

to the individual’s personality, as well as the solidity and flexibility of cultural identity

(that is, solid identification and affiliation to their native culture along with the ability to

understand and handle the cultural mood of the hosting country) and excellent pre-

migratory mental health. Another factor depends on how the migration process/project is

carried-out. It consists of motivations that lead a person to migrate, that are powerful

elements of psychological support. Other factors, those that provide meaning to an

individual’s life, allow the migrant to keep two self-images of the individual’s life united

(pre and post-migratory self-images), thus avoiding a break in the continuity of the

existential pattern. A migration project foresees the future, and is prepared for it, is very

positive. The more the project is realistic, the more it is successful as the migrants

adapts to life in the hosting country. Individual characteristics positively influence the

conception and realization of the migration project. Furthermore, social support (family

and friends that sustain the individual during migration) plays a protective role.

FORCED MIGRATION AND MENTAL HEALTH

If the criteria of Figure 1 and 2 are applied to refugees or to those asking for political

asylum, a high number of vulnerability factors exist. The traumatic experiences of a

refugee can severely damage individual characteristics, especially if he/she is a victim of

violence or torture. Systematic violence damages the human personality by destroying

coping mechanisms and upsetting personal relationships with others.

The effects of the refugee experience on cultural identity can be severe. Focusing on

patients with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) reveals a reduction in their personality

and cultural repertoire. The effects of systematic violence on personality were

masterfully described by the later Italian writer, Primo Levi, a victim of the Nazi

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concentration camps, much before the description of PTSD became fashionable among

psychiatrists. His description of life in Auschwitz in his novel: If This Is A Man,

introduces the phenomenological experience of those victims of violence better than any

scientific work.

Imagine now a man who is deprived of everyone he loves, and at the same time
of his house, his habits, his clothes, in short, of everything he possesses: he will
be a hollow man reduced to suffering and needs, forgetful of dignity and restraint,
for he who loses all often easily loses himself (Ö) It is in this way that one can
understand the double sense of the term ìextermination campî, and it is now
clear what we seek to express with the phrase: ìto lie on the bottom.î

And further ahead:

We would also like to consider that the Lager was pre-eminently a gigantic
biological and social experiment. Thousands of individuals, differing in age,
condition, origin, language, culture and customs, are enclosed within barbed
wire: there they live a regular, controlled life which is identical for all and
inadequate to all needs, and which is more rigorous than any experimenter could
have set up to establish what is essential and what adventitious to the conduct of
human animal in the struggle of life.

Levi describes what the ethnopsychiatrist François Sironi (Sironi, 1999) calls universal

reduction, that is, separation of an individual from his own people and all human beings.

Competently described by the French novelist Daniel Pennac “…torture is not only
inflicting pain, it consists in devastating a human being till separating him from human

species, nothing else but howling solitude…”

In the last decade, torture, and the political application of systematic violence in

genocides in Cambodia, ex-Yugoslavia and Rwanda have in many individuals achieved

these results. Human beings have been separated from their humanity by destroying their

culture, because humanity is expressed through culture.

Scientific studies have revealed the high prevalence of psychiatric disorders among those

migrants submitted to oppression, torture and/or other forms of organized violence

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(Steel, 2002). Post-migratory experiences can worsen this situation. Social distress and

psychiatric symptoms can deteriorate in the hosting country. Epidemiological studies

reveal that PTSD and depression (often associated with grief) are the most frequently

occurring diagnosis in refugees, regardless of cultural background. Prevalence rates are

much higher than in non-traumatized populations (Mollica, 1999).

Cumulative exposure to trauma (torture, violence, forced to leave home, shelling or

shooting at close range, threats to self or significant others) corresponds to the

progressive increase in psychiatric morbidity (Mollica, 1998; Turner, 2003), consistent

with the vulnerability of those chronically traumatized before their migration experience.

Among those refugees from countries in war, multiple exposures to traumatic events

over time is very high (Turner, 2003).

Victims forced to migrate are void of any migratory project. In the majority of cases the

choice of country in which to ask for asylum is dictated by contingency and not by

favorable opportunities. Among refugees, loss of social status is the rule; many leave

behind a successful life-style and excellent employment (health professionals, teachers,

etc.). Many have difficulties having their qualifications recognized in their new hosting

countries (Burnett, 2001). These populations have experienced a loss of their native

land, their social world and death of significant others. Social support and understanding

is often missing in the hosting country. The refugee is often alone, and not in a country

of his/her choice. This is a very common situation in Italy. On the other hand, when a

refugee escapes into the countryside or into a neighboring country in a group, his/her

companions, who are also traumatized and suffering, cannot provide each other with

social and psychological support.

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A refugee is considered a migrant whose risk factors exceed their resilience factors. In

these conditions, migration can prove to be a powerful re-traumatizing agent, leading to

serious mental health problems.

MIGRATION AND RE-TRAUMATIZATION

The few studies that exist on post-exile factors influencing psychiatric morbidity of

refugees agree that psychiatric symptoms increase after the arrival of refugees in the

hosting country. Among different refugee populations, pre- and post-migratory factors

interact in a complex manner to cause the onset of serious psychiatric disorders (Steel,

1999; Turner, 2003). However, some refugees who are exposed to the terrible experience

of war are sometimes able to overcome migration-related difficulties when they find

favorable conditions and adequate social support in the host country; and they may even

contribute to the development of the hosting country.

In contrast, lack of adequate reception programs and poor contact with their family and

homeland can reduce adaptation. Furthermore, difficult access to health service

aggravates the health of migrants from war areas. Reception and health services in the

hosting countries are often unprepared to cope with the migrants; personnel is often

untrained, and will not look after these patients psychologically, especially if they are

unable to ask for assistance (Burnett, 2001).

The mental health of refugees (and those who seek asylum) is often jeopardized if they

are re-subjected to the violence they had escaped in their native land, including racism

and discrimination. This may result in a powerful re-traumatization. An individual who

has suffered trauma will be easily re-traumatized if exposed to stressors. For example,

soldiers who have suffered traumatic disorders in battle cannot be sent back to the front

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to fight, because their symptoms will surface again when faced with even minor

stressors.

Migration is a traumatizing event, composed of three main parts:

(1) Deculturalization: deculturization stress is deep and violent when the migrant has a

cultural identity crisis because he/she has been stripped of their culture by violence,

social upheaval and/or torture.

(2) Social Loneliness: Often those who have asked for asylum are lodged in places with

others whose legal status as an asylum seeker is their only common denominator; they

have to cohabit with people who do not speak the same language and who do not

understand each other’s habits. This enhances the perception of isolation and alienation

from the surroundings. This is a retraumatizing event for those who have lost social

contacts with family, friends and intimate relations.

In a study on Iraqi refugees, the different social situations during exile, in particular the

levels of emotional social support, had a major association with PTSD and depression.

Lack of social support resulted in a stronger form of depressive morbidity than traumas

the refugee had experienced at home (Gorst-Unsworth, 1998). Major risk factor for

psychiatric disorders is separation from family (Turner, 2003). Difficult living conditions

and isolation have also been associated with higher levels of depression among refugees.

(3) Exposure to Triggering Stimuli: the first human contacts for migrants in the hosting

country are usually soldiers or the police. The sight of uniforms for individuals with

increased arousal and anxiety, typical of PTSD, can provoke violent anxiety reactions.

The places and conditions where refugees are lodged during their first period in the

hosting country are often similar to detention buildings (isolation, barred windows, often

former prisons), and may induce retraumatization in subjects who have already been

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isolated in their homeplace (Silove, 2001). However comfortable the lodging, locked

doors, the noise of cell doors closing and the sight of uniforms can evoke strong

traumatic memories (Burnett, 2001). The procedures for people asking for asylum

(repeated interrogation, often with overt expression of mistrust on behalf of the hosting

country’s officials) can represent a repetition of a prior situation, detention and

interrogation by the military forces in their native land. One must not forget that this

occurs under conditions of emotional difficulty; political asylum is a complicated

procedure and is characterized by the continuous terror of being sent back home

(Sinnerbrink, 1997).

Similar considerations may apply to apparently harmless procedures such as a medical

consultation, where a naked body among dressed ones, to be examined by strangers, can

provoke anxiety attacks among those who have previously been tortured.

Repeated deculturization trauma, isolation, the threat of separation, and stimuli that lead

to reexperiencing past terrifying events, increase the risk of severe mental disorders that

hamper adaptation in the hosting country and have long-term disabling effects.

THE PRINCIPLES OF BEST PRACTICES

As Plato states, “A foreigner separated from his fellow citizens and family should

receive more love from men and Gods.” Retraumatization through forced migration

should be avoided; vulnerability factors will not dominate resiliency factors. At this

point, mental health management depends not only on the mental health personnel, but

mostly on adequate social interventions. We may group working indications according to

issues (summarized in figure 3).

Countries That Grant Asylum

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 Reception Personnel

The first welcoming committees should be composed of civilians, not military forces or

police, even if the latter are often well trained to face the situation, since their view could

trigger anxiety reactions among PTSD patients.

The personnel must be efficiently trained to handle the complex relational stimuli of

asylum seekers. For example, sudden dysphoric crises and controversial statements are

not a sign of an aggressive personality or an attempt to lie, but could be a sign of psychic

illness. All asylum seekers must have counseling aimed at screening people at risk for

psychiatric disorders. An active offer of help is fundamental, because those affected by

PTSD or certain forms of depression do not ask for help, as this is part of the clinical

picture of their disease.

Medical assistance must be provided, and the doctors, as previously mentioned, must

have relational skills. When a subject who has been tortured is seen by a doctor the risk

is present for severe anxiety reactions, hence, the doctor and his assistants should be

careful not to induce them inadvertently.

Reception lodges

Apart from basic services, the building must be in the midst of peaceful surroundings; it

must be a place where the refugee can create his/her own corner, where he/she can rest.

We often meet migrants who suffer from insomnia; at night increased arousal determines

frequent awakenings and anxiety attacks.

Asylum seekers are often forced to live in overcrowded surroundings, hearing people

coming in and going out and slamming doors. These people live in surroundings whose

activities are not under their control. Obviously prison-like environments must be

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avoided. The countries that grant asylum must have clear, comprehensible, accurate and

rapid procedures to recognize the refugee status (in Italy, in 2004, one can wait up to two

years for an answer).

The personnel that compose the Commissions that grant asylum must be trained to

understand the difficulties subjects will have in telling their story. Among victims of

torture, possible contradictory statements may only be a sign of transient disorientation,

not lies. In our experience, some people were refused refugee status because they were

unable to correctly reconstruct their story.

Subjects seeking asylum should have the opportunity to be accompanied by someone

whom they trust; this is granted only to children in Italy. With someone to share this

delicate phase, the asylum seeker can have the emotional impact of interrogation

alleviated, the impression of having a police interrogation reduced and sense of social

support strengthened. The bureaucratic procedures for reunification of the family must

follow an easier and quicker path in comparison to what happens to other migrants: this

must occur as soon as is possible.

People seeking asylum should be informed at the beginning since the beginning of the

bureaucratic procedures about the advantage of having an appropriate medical or

psychiatric certification to go with their audience with the Commission that grants

asylum; and they should be informed about how to obtain one.

The primary aim of services is the promotion of protected socialization. This can be

reached in different ways: discussion groups that aid the subject to reappraise past

experiences, group activity such as art therapy, language courses with teachers that are

aware of how migrants’ distress can lead to learning difficulties. The refugee must be

278
reassured that any difficulties are normal reactions to abnormal situations and not a sign

of weakness.

Ongoing mental health monitoring of the refugees can lead to immediate therapeutic

interventions when necessary. Mental health should focus on:

(1) Construction of services network: The refugee needs various types of

services, such as medical, psychological, social and legal services, instruction

courses, the possibility to be accompanied to work, the search for living quarters.

These services must be organized as a network so as to facilitate the refugee in

establishing social relationships and preserve his/her mental health through ease

at “going along pathways” and breaking social isolation. The optimal solution

would be that a professional figure (social assistant or such like) to accompany

the refugee.

(2) Protection of cultural identity: It is extremely useful to promote meetings

between fellow countrymen, but only if the social and political conditions of the

hosting country and individual health conditions will permit. This will strengthen

or restore the sense of belonging to a community. Parties, cultural activity by

small groups, the support of their native country, obviously if new political

conditions, different from those that pushed the refugee outside from his/her

country, are established, will be fundamental, mostly if repatriation is planned.

NATIVE COUNTRIES

Many governments consider future exiles, refugees and asylum seekers as enemies: this

attitude can reduce and damage the possibility to implement the following suggestions.

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Even with this awareness, it seems useful to know which are the best practices to

promote:

(1) Minimize the risks of exile: We are all aware of the fact that recommendations have a

limited value when applied in a country at war. In this unsteady situation it is difficult to

imagine protecting refugees, but in any case we think this is important. Often a simple

change of mentality can yield favorable results. If the government of a country at war

remembers that its human capital is its most important capital, then it can start thinking

of its refugees.

This means priority for the protection of civilians must be given, such as favoring

evacuation into the internal regions of the refugees’ native country rather than favoring

their escape out of the country. Priority to relations with humanitarian Institutions must

be given to protect the evacuated populations, facilitating those projects that not only

protect individual and physical survival but that also protect socialization.

(2) Promote primary (early detection of subjects at risk, adoption of risk avoiding

behaviors, and promotion of healthy life-styles), secondary (treatment of the disorder and

reduction of its probability of relapse and/or recurrence), and tertiary (reduction of the

impact and consequences of the disorder and social integration strategies) psychiatric

prevention programs. In particular, favor assistance programs with strategies aimed at

mental health; promote prevention of psychiatric disorders among populations at risk,

prevent immediate crisis for traumatized populations (by offering information on events

and on “normal” reactions, provide early diagnosis of illness and the care.

(3) Promote contact with expatriate populations; this entails cooperation with projects we

previously discussed when dealing with countries that grant asylum (protection of

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cultural identity). This not only will be of great help to possible repatriation but also to

the individual mental health, the perception that their native land still exists, that the

condition of its citizens in and out of the country is important, can be decisive to protect

cultural identity and break the state of social isolation. It can consist of information on

the refugees’ native countries, organization of contacts with family and friends,

formation of discussion groups and other forms of social events, cultural, religious etc.

(4) Facilitate specific repatriation programs: Repatriation not only protects individual

mental health, but also the country’s socio-economical conditions, by aiding the country

in regaining its fundamental human capital. With the aid of international organizations

and NGOs, repatriation must not only emphasize logistic aspects, but socio-cultural

aspects. The aim must not be the mere return of populations to their homeland, but also

the construction of a social network and the rebuilding of a cultural basis for everyday

life, paying attention to the needs of specific groups, such as women, elderly people,

children and adolescents. Today, experience and scientific literature can help organize

this type of program.

It is useful for those who in one way or another care for migrants, to remember that
assistance to these people is, as Plato says, a humanitarian issue. It is investing in the

future, for those countries that grant asylum, and for the native country that allows

repatriation. Every country is interested that their fellow citizens be healthy, solid and in

condition to contribute to the life of their homeland.

RESEARCH ISSUES

Taking into account existing information on migrations, forced migrations, and

mental health, three main future research areas emerge:

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(1) Longitudinal studies on migrants’ mental health: most existing evidences comes from

research on selected groups of migrants, in which some socio-demographic features

are related with mental health status, but there is a lack of follow-up information.

What is needed are longitudinal studies to evaluate (using standardized assessment

instruments) the health status of the same sample in relation to the factors suspected

to be relevant in protecting or impairing mental health.

(2) Long-term studies on refugees’ and asylum seekers’ mental health. Longitudinal

studies are needed, to study refugees’ and asylum seekers’ mental health in

relationship to the reception by host countries.

(3) Qualitative studies to focus on the phenomenological experiences of

migrants: qualitative studies to determine how they experience their lives,

their psychological needs, and those psychosocial supports that are most

conducive to their health and well-being.

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 FIGURE 1
MIGRATION AND MENTAL HEALTH
VULNERABILITY FACTORS

INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS MIGRATORY PROJECT OTHER FACTORS

Frailty of the self Absent (forced migration) Transcultural stress
Fragile cultural identity Failed (risk of failure) Loss of status
Rigid cultural identity Homesickness, grief
Maladaptive attachment styles SOCIAL SUPPORT
Ineffective coping styles - Absent
Pre-migratory morbidity - Inadequate

PSYCHOLOGICAL DISTRESS

SOCIAL EXCLUSION, OSTRACISM

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 FIGURE 2
MIGRATION AND MENTAL HEALTH
RESILIENCE FACTORS
INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS MIGRATORY PROJECT
Solid individuality PRE-MIGRATION
Solid cultural identity - Pre-migratory preparation
Flexible cultural identity - Pre-migratory will to emigrate
Effective attachment styles - Realistic expectations
Effective coping styles POST-MIGRATION
Pre-migratory health - Post-migratory project achievement
- Effective post-migratory working-
through

EFFECTIVE SOCIAL SUPPORT

MENTAL HEALTH
SOCIAL INTEGRATION

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 FIGURE 3
FORCED MIGRATION: PRINCIPLES OF BEST PRACTICES
I. COUNTRIES THAT GRANT POLITICAL ASYLUM
Choice/training of reception personnel
Adequate reception camps
Procedures to grant asylum
- clear, comprehensible, accessible and rapid
- a commission trained in dealing with psychiatric disorders of people applying for asylum
- escorts during interrogation sessions
- facilitate family reunification

Organization of services
- socialization
- psychological condition monitoring

Construction of services network

Protection of cultural identity
II. NATIVE COUNTRIES
Reduction of number of exiles
Promotion of psychiatric prevention programs
Contact with expatriate populations
Specific repatriation programs

285
REFERENCES

1. Bhugra D. (2004): Migration and mental health. Acta Psychiatr Scand 109: 243-
258.

2. Burnett A, Peel M. (2001): Asylum seekers and refugees in Britain. The health of
survivors of torture and organised violence. BMJ; 322: 606-609.

3. Gorst–Unsworth C, Goldenberg E. (1998): Psychological sequelae of torture and

organised violence suffered by refugees from Iraq. Trauma–related factors compared
to social factors in exile. Br J Psychiatry 172: 90-94.

4. Mazzetti M. (1996): Strappare le radici. Psicologia e psicopatologia di donne e

uomini che migrano [Ripping Out the Roots: The Psychology and Psychopathology
of Women and Men Who Migrate]. Torino: L’Harmattan Italia.

5. Mollica RF, McInnes K, Poole C, Tor S. (1998): Dose-effect relationships of

trauma to symptoms of depression and post-traumatic stress disorder among
Cambodian survivors of mass violence. Br J Psychiatry 173: 482-488.

6. Mollica RF, McInnes K, Sarajlic N, Lavelle J, Sarajlic I, Massagli MP. (1999):

Disability associated with psychiatric comorbidity and health status in Bosnian
refugees living in Croatia. JAMA 282:433-439.

7. Silove D, Steel Z, Mollica R. (2001): Detention of asylum seekers: assault on

health, human rights, and social development. Lancet 357: 1436-1437.

4. Sinnerbrink I, Silove D, Field A, Steel Z, Manicavasagar V. (1997):

Compounding
of pre–migration trauma and post–migration stress in asylum seekers. J Psychol 131:
463-470.

9. Sironi, F. (1999): Bourreaux et Victimes. Psychologie de la Torture. Éditions

Odile Jacob, Paris.

10. Steel Z, Silove D, Phan T, Bauman A. (2002): Long-term effect of psychological

trauma on the mental health of Vietnamese refugees resettled in Australia: a
population-based study. Lancet 360: 1056-1062.

11. Turner SW, Bowie C, Dunn G, Shapo L, Yule W. (2003): Mental health of
Kosovan Albanian refugees in the UK. Br J Psychiatry 182: 444-448.

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 CHAPTER 14

THE ROLE OF NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS

IN POST-CONFLICT RECOVERY

Oliviero Bettinelli, M.D.

ABSTRACT

Non-governmental Organizations (NGOs), and organized civil society associations in

general, are indispensable interlocutors in identifying and tackling the needs of the most
vulnerable and marginalized people. This chapter presents an overview of the role of
NGOs, as an expression of civil societyís reaction to those whose who have suffered the
devastating effects of war.

The work of NGOs in emergency situations over the years has been characterised by a
concrete and professionally qualified presence, aimed at protecting the most vulnerable
by encouraging contacts between institutions and populations via specific, targeted and
visible actions. The complexity of the problems to be dealt with time after time has
increasingly demonstrated that such measures are insufficient.

NGOs may only assume a relevant, irreplaceable and concrete role when, in addition to
specific action, they offer public opinion an exact and substantiated reflection on the root
causes of poverty, injustice and social exclusion. This dual approach of action and
condemnation is the framework in which NGOs should define, plan, implement and
evaluate their work, in order to be valid social actors capable of contributing to a culture
of justice and peace.

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NGOs AS A PART OF CIVIL SOCIETY: A NEW ROLE TO ACHIEVE A
SIGNIFICANT PRESENCE

In many countries, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) are the part of civil society,

which at various levels works with the most vulnerable sectors of the population in

situations of social and politico-military conflict. In such situations NGOs have always

strived to promote and organise a working approach based on the most serious and

apparent social problems. Therefore, they provide an opportunity for those who wish to

take part in the processes of change regarding the most problematic global issues,

starting with a needs assessment that defines the social, healthcare, cultural and

economic context. Over the years they have increasingly taken on a role that is geared

towards development as well as aid. While NGOs have traditionally been considered as

organisations that are able to act in timely fashion, they have also developed a social and

political identity that has led them to interact with institutions on the one hand, and with

the causes and most serious aspects of the issues they deal with on the other.

Their role, based on their ability to draw up and plan specific projects on behalf of local

populations in the poorest countries by taking advantage of a methodology of

cooperation, has turned NGOs into important and historically significant interlocutors

that have a permanent presence in theatres of humanitarian action. This chapter will be

limited to a reflection on NGOs that intervene in humanitarian emergencies caused by

wars or environmental disasters, based on an awareness that NGOs are extremely varied

and encompass many different ways of undertaking civil participation.

NGOs are involved in such fields of operation as development, education, water and land

protection campaigns, large-scale vaccination programmes, and publishing and printing

activities aimed at guaranteeing freedom of speech. We wish to reflect on the thorny

288
issues regarding a precise intervention model, with consideration of its role in the light of

conflicts that, through violence and destruction, have led to breakdowns in social

relations and injustice.

CURRENT ISSUES REGARDING NGOs IN EMERGENCY SITUATIONS

For a long time public opinion regarded NGOs as organisations consisting of groups of

volunteers which, motivated by a deep sense of solidarity, helped men and women in

emergency situations. In most cases, technical expertise (engineers, nurses, agricultural

experts) was deemed sufficient to ensure management of certain specific projects that

aimed to provide an immediate and appropriate response in social and healthcare terms

and to improve the quality of peopleís lives. But what was left after the initiatives were

implemented? What did they represent for the future? How could these projects sustain

local resources?

NGOs have posed these key questions within the context of conflicts which has obliged

them to review their role both in terms of the various capacities to be acquired (e.g.

peace-building) and regarding the political role that they have inevitably been obliged to

play. NGOs are called on to assess the way in which they operate during conflicts, the

extent to which they are involved and, inevitably, how they form part of them. In recent

years, for example, certain interventions defined as ìhumanitarianî have been closely

linked ñ and even at the service of ñ military interventions. This has aroused many

doubts and questions regarding the means of operation and reasons for the presence of

NGOs and international organisations in post-conflict emergency situations. NGOs must

inevitably give answers that go to the very heart of their mandates and roles. Should they

289
simply provide assistance and first aid initiatives, or should they take part in processes

aimed at dealing in the long term with the causes that have led to emergency situations

and conflict in an area? Is it enough to heal the wounds, or should these wounds be

healed by condemning what causes them so as to prevent them being reopened in the

future?

A Reflection That Concerns Everyone

Providing only aid runs the risk of creating chronic emergency situations and absolving

the responsibility of politicians and institutions regarding the real problems faced by

populations. The total delegation of responsibility for managing social problems to

NGOs, even though in an emergency situation, reveals how peopleís problems are

secondary compared with political problems. This entails the risk of not tackling the root

causes, but rather accepting a mechanism that makes further emergencies sustainable

given that there are people ready to manage them. Moreover, with an entirely political

approach there is a risk of bypassing the problems that people are facing. In actual

disaster situations people often have to manage complex emergencies without the

support of any organisation. In the face of hunger, violence, poverty and illness people

have to find the necessary courage and wherewithal to act.

Many NGOs have adopted a rationale borrowed from social and healthcare services. In

the face of serious emergency situations first aid is a necessary phase, which must be

ensured with any available means or facility, but at the same time obviously it cannot

suffice.

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ìHumanizing humanitarian aidî is the mission of NGOs that wish to go beyond a mere

relationship of functional subsidiary and regain ownership of the ethical value of

participation. This is the challenge we are facing. Otherwise, one risks indiscriminately

using the same working methods and intervention processes over and over again when

faced with disasters. This method is apparently efficient in the short run and undoubtedly

ensures achievement of certain minimum objectives that define the scope of intervention

and reassure the organisational and economic components for those who propose them.

However, it runs the risk of wasting the human assets, which should characterise the

specific expression of civil society that is represented by an NGO. An NGO fulfils its

mission if, through its organisational methods and strategic choices, it is able to

complement governmental structural initiatives. However, in order to achieve this it must

be able to develop specific and alternative strategies.

Some Operational Considerations

NGO presence should envisage planning with local collaboration rather than theoretical

planning. Planning policies should meet the administrative requirements of financial

backers, but such policies should constitute a tool for the NGO rather than a constraint.

With expertise and experience, via careful analysis, an NGO should be able to assert the

need to set up projects that are created on the spot and which are developed and amended

through comprehensive and ongoing dialogue with local interlocutors.

Studies and target groups should be identified by focusing on peopleís everyday lives as

the principal tool of analysis. While there are disaster intervention procedures that are

shared by all NGOs, it is also true that only encounters with and the involvement of

291
people in defining operational aspects render them genuinely effective. NGOs may

become a resource for local areas if they are able to listen to them by creating

opportunities for assessment. They must also learn to make use of the institutional and

informal networks that comprise them, and which are attempting to respond to manifest

needs. Only in this way can NGOs avoid wasting their potential and succeed in

becoming stable and significant actors for the whole social system, which may also reap

immediate benefits from their actions.

In this sense NGOs have become players who, by ìdoingî, promote an effective

educational methodology that is capable of bringing local elements back into the

limelight. The business of NGOs is not to replace but to facilitate and accompany what is

happening in a local situation.

Some of the projects drawn up with social coordinators for the benefit of Rwandan

widows just after the 1994 massacres still provide a forum for meeting and solidarity

among various ethnic groups. Patient mediation efforts have given rise to a project

which, starting from sustainable and credible agricultural production of staple items, has

been able to accompany the social process of reconstruction and meetings between

people who lived through - from different standpoints - the same tragedies of genocide.

What emerges from this analysis is the complexity of the work of NGOs, which cannot

be managed by creating projects that underestimate it. Such complexity needs to be

tackled with a planning concept that is able to reshape itself in terms of the needs that

emerge and the working prospects that are identified. In this way local elements should

292
be identified and appreciated as privileged partners, by taking advantage of their skills

and investing in them. Such elements include social and healthcare institutions;

voluntary associations; work cooperatives; municipalities; organised groups operating

locally; and initiatives ñ even small ones ñ that are striving to provide responses. NGOs

should bring out their abilities by building relationships based on trust, with patience and

professionalism. Local actors should be the first planning resource to make use of,

supported ñ where necessary ñ by technicians and experts. The skills that emerge

constitute sure and undeniable added value only when combined with a long-term

planning process that provides for investment in training, and not just the mere

exportation of decontextualised working methods. The history of humanitarian aid is full

of examples of great but unsustainable works and grand projects disconnected from

everyday reality, which are feasible in terms of visibility but highly ineffective for a local

area that wishes to invest in its future.

In terms of methodology this implies interpreting a local area and its needs which reveal

themselves over time, by meeting people, getting to know the social networks that

comprise it and delving into its history and prospects without being satisfied with

sociological interpretations and statistical data that fit every situation. Such patient

efforts enable identification of clear, defined and sustainable work goals that can be

connected into an effective and functional network. This hard and unseen work turns a

humanitarian operator into an expert in ìhumanityî. Not just someone who implements

projects but rather a facilitator of processes in which he or she is one among many other

actors.

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EXPERIENCE IN MITROVICA, KOSOVO

Between March and June 1999 we witnessed a terrible and violent war that had a huge

media impact. The war in Kosovo captured the collective imagination in a devastating

fashion. In three months more humanitarian aid and NGOs poured into Kosovo, a region

just over half the size of Belgium, than went to assist the large-scale crises in Africa. The

options taken by Western nations show how the ìKosovoî problem was not exclusively

humanitarian in nature, but also had a strategic and political relevance that inevitably

affected the choices made by governments involved in the matter.

NGOs went there immediately and were immediately obliged to deal with and operate on

several fronts: military, ethnic and religious, economic, political and social. For many

NGOs choosing to be present represents the ethical requirement to say no to war by

being on the spot, as a sign of sharing with and closeness to a civilian population that is a

predetermined victim of political schemes.

Such presence is therefore strategic, with a view to working effectively, given that many

NGOsí projects are aimed at providing psychological support, rebuilding relations

between people, and bearing witness by sharing in everyday life through simple actions

and choosing to pool experiences of poverty, solitude and the sense of helplessness.

Many operational decisions were made and, while in general public opinion focused on

the larger agenciesí programmes, it should be pointed out that great efforts were ñ and

still are ñ made by small NGOs that have remained to tackle the aftermaths of emergency

situations with people who are still impacted by the social and human disasters that a

terrible experience such as war entails.

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Therefore, if they are to be significant actors, NGOs must deal not only with the

problems of ìhere and nowî but must also assess and consider the consequences and

sustainability of their actions ìafterwardsî, when the spotlight of public interest has

faded, while tragedies remain.

A Significant Experience

The aim of the Mitrovica project was to work with the most vulnerable families.

Vulnerability criteria were recorded through interview and home visits, and often

highlighted the impossibility of accessing humanitarian networks. The presence of the

elderly, the disabled and those traumatised by war prevented families from easily

accessing the humanitarian aid system. This approach enabled us to define working

methods that we believe can help to make actions in complex crisis areas more efficient.

Presence

NGOs should have a living local presence. They cannot do without relations with the

actors with whom they must operate, nor dispense with an examination of their

experience. In Kosovo a choice was made to live with the people, in the same houses and

with the same problems of lack of running water and electricity, enduring the same

transportation difficulties and experiencing the same atmosphere of insecurity.

Presence enables getting to grips with the problems. A critical interpretation of a local

situation takes place within the context of events that involve the people who live there.

Interviews are the tool that should be used to supplement the everyday relationship

which is built up by living and spending time in the same places as the local people. The

role of operators - ìexperts in humanitarian aidî - is to be in the midst of problems in

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order to perceive them as people experience them, and come up with possible solutions

by seeing them through the eyes of the people themselves.

Relating and communicating experience

Giving shape to accounts and making them come alive entails going beyond the rationale

of the kind of cooperation that is protected by the typical tools, places and forms of

expression of international operators. If an account is to take on the kind of vital, solid

shape that makes it authentic, parallel ways must be sought to the rationale of interviews

in order to make headway in terms of intimate and sincere communication. This can be

achieved by opting to experience the same problems and the same places. It means being

patient in an encounter that inevitably is initially based on a balance of power between

those who are able to give and those who are obliged to receive. Time is a resource that

often clashes with a certain kind of planning, but it is often a necessary condition for

activating processes of radical change.

Planning Together

Planning together means interpreting a situation in order to create opportunities for

assessment and sharing with members of the civil society who live in an area. Planning

together means moving on from good intentions to the challenge of sharing, with all the

risks that this entails. It means putting fine words into fine deeds.

Starting from the needs assessment phase, NGOs should know how to involve the

network of players who can make the intervention effective. This is not easy because it

requires the courage to build up trust via adult and mature negotiation. Planning

independently is easier and also enables the construction of tailor-made assessment tools.

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Planning together adds assessment elements and makes them more complex, but it

reduces the risk of having a project that is distant and without roots in the local situation.

Trusting people

This aspect calls for a culture of trust and respect for people. We believe that NGOs

should develop human relations professionals within their organisations who are capable

of building trust by offering working tools and opportunities to use them. All too often

NGOs show up with their technicians and skilled workers who tend to define and wish to

solve problems on behalf of others.

A careful assessment of cultural contexts should be aimed at developing working

methods that regard the people involved as active players in projects. They should not

just be seen as logistics people and interpreters but also as local citizens capable of being

the centre of attention and genuine key promoters of change. Also, in this context our

experience has confirmed that the role of NGOs cannot be limited to dealing with an

emergency. By taking advantage of the opportunities of a more participatory approach, it

should also be to encourage professionalism, promote working methodologies and

propose actions that go beyond the implications of the emergency.

A WORKING APPROACH THAT IS ABLE TO COMBINE ENTHUSIASM

WITH PROFESSIONALISM

NGOs have long since developed an awareness that the complexity of humanitarian
interventions calls for a high degree of professionalism and training in ìhuman relationsî
and management of the change processes which characterise a society that is obliged to
shift from immediate emergency management to development projects that may redefine
the social and healthcare framework of a region. NGOs often have to deal with a degree

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of wariness towards them from large agencies, and also frequently from the academic
world. Their history and identity set their actions among institutions and in local
contexts, which means that they are undoubtedly difficult to govern. NGOs have fewer
constraints and have developed practical know-how directly in the field, which means
that is hard for them to accept institutional working methods and forms of expression.
NGO operators who are in touch with peopleís problems on a daily basis and who wish
to remain true to their identities often grasp the gap between large-scale programmes,
which are inevitably slow and complicated, and peopleís everyday lives. Everyoneís
aim, whether NGOs or not, is to reduce this gap by seeking and taking advantage of
working methods that provide for analysis, frameworks of intervention and shared
planning. Whatever kind of relationship is established between NGOs and public bodies
(for example, government ministries), NGOs should maintain a style of intervention that
best favours support to the most vulnerable and the poorest with whom they are acting.
NGOs should continue along this road in line with a professionalism that surely
guarantees effectiveness and credibility towards genuine development support action.
Institutions should carry on attempting to deal with post-conflict situations, with various
viewpoints and methodologies, but which through support actions are able to
complement processes aimed at recovering a better quality of life for people.

Negotiate By Managing Conflicts In A Non-Violent Way

NGOs, therefore, have the possibility to play a mediation role in humanitarian action in

general. Current theatres of war have confirmed that not just any kind of intervention,

and even less so a military one, can be presented as a humanitarian mission. A military

presence is often deemed necessary to maintain law and order and specifically uses

weapons as its means of action.

On the contrary, an NGO presence is aimed at building relations of trust with the

population, which means that dialogue and negotiation are an essential element of any

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humanitarian action. Long-term goals need to be very clear to avoid overlapping - or

even worse manipulating - such different types of intervention.

We have seen how populations are extremely cautious in giving trust. If this trust is to be

capable of building meaningful relations that are not distorted by humanitarian spin-offs

(wealth, Western goods, etc.), it must be based on an adult footing that transforms the

relationship between beneficiaries and donors into one between people with relations of

mutual trust striving to achieve common goals. Among other things, this process could

have a decisive effect in terms of more responsible management of law and order.

Working By Investing In People Rather Than Structures

Our experience in recent years has led us to opt for making use of people rather than

creating infrastructures. Obviously this became possible when other players assumed

responsibility for meeting structural needs. A local area draws from its history the

necessary resources to tackle problems. Imposing use of such resources without sharing

implies carrying out an excellent first aid action, but it risks being thwarted because it

has no local roots.

The immediate efficiency of many structures, such as hospitals, rehabilitation centres,

schools and vocational training centres, has been delusory, as later on they have turned

out to be useless because they are unsustainable in a local context. In Africa, we saw a

woodwork shop that was set up for vocational training, which had marvellous and highly

sophisticated machinery delivered by large companies from the North Europe.

Unfortunately, those who finished the course had difficulties in entering the job market,

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partly because no local woodwork shops owned and used such excellent machinery.

Hospitals have been built with outstanding equipment which few people know how to

use or even less maintain. Education authorities have been alarmed by management and

maintenance costs that schools have asked them to sustain. Sports facilities have been

built in places marked by chronic emigration, thus obliging families to go elsewhere in

search of work and safety, prematurely leaving behind completely deserted playing fields

and gyms.

The primary resource for any kind of project is people, together with whom initiatives

should be created and planned. Local areas and situations, together with a careful needs

analysis, are the prerequisites of effective and sustainable planning.

Working By Taking Advantage Of The Social Fabric

Areas of operation normally have different forms of participation and local organization,

which are often underestimated because they are structured in a different way from ours.

Yet they often comprise the informal indigenous framework of the civil society for

whom we are called on to operate, which is the real protagonist of change. The

somewhat paternalist attitude, which has often led us to export our mechanisms and

organisational methods without assessing the local impact they might have, only serves

to emphasise a rift which - already by nature of the events - is perceived as soon as we

arrive from another country because we have the ìpowerî to help. Whether we like it or

not, we are seen as people who have wealth and skills and decide to offer them to those

who donít have them. Interacting locally and offering trust, without unduly succumbing

to illusions, can narrow this gap and build more authentic relations as long as, in

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 practice, experience is valued and acknowledged and not based on mere management of

resource flows.

Local Grassroots Networks: A Resource to be Developed

Local networks of solidarity, both formal and informal, are the key resource that people

have, and they should be activated by teaching that derives and develops from actions and

practice. It is vital to promote encounters and the sharing of elements of history in order to

encourage exchanges between people, the sharing of hopes and fears, awareness of the

past and confidence in the future. Believing through deeds in the people with whom one

operates means telling them that are able to work, that they can be concerned about those

who are suffering, that they donít need to depend on anyone and that, via a genuine and

adult relationship, they can become the protagonists of their own liberation.

Several years of working with widows in Rwanda, ex-prisoners in Kosovo and home-

help facilities in various regions of the Balkans by setting up self-help groups has

enabled us to operate in a very decisive way in dealing with some of the poorest

situations in these countries. Without top-heavy structures these interventions have taken

advantage of peopleís desire to move forward and given them back their leading role in

bringing about change in their situations. Self-help was introduced in the context of

small enterprise projects, via microcredit support and the setting up of small

cooperatives. This led people to deal with each other on a daily basis - involving joking,

eating, sleeping and a love for building - which in turn resulted in relations and actions

based on trust.

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Taking Advantage Of The Institutional Network

The network of local players, institutional and otherwise, comprise the assets that NGOs

are endowed with. This local working structure guarantees the prerequisites for actions

that can be developed in the long term regarding the emotional and economic recovery

that is needed to encourage steps towards justice and peace. Projects do not exist in a

vacuum, but there are paths which each time come into contact with local NGOs, local

institutions and governments.

NGOs that are expert in humanitarian aid may play a vital part that is based on their own

freedom and non-institutional role. They can become the link that connects up the

network among institutions, by taking on the onerous task of exploiting them as a

resource, and preventing any outbreak of conflict that might lead to disintegration of

their specific functions in sterile - and thus useless - actions, with regard to people who

have already endured too much suffering.

Training Local Operators

In this perspective NGOs have no option but to invest in people and take account of the

training needs called for by support work, and gearing it towards processes of change. It

is vital that training should develop people, by empowering them and not just giving

them knowledge. Power, resources and the capacity to operate independently comprise

the tool that enables people to turn themselves from mere beneficiaries into self-

sufficient political and social players.

Training should also provide for development of sharing and consensus on the goals of

projects underway and those for which training is being given. Allegiance to the mission

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is not always automatically guaranteed by the skills developed to achieve it. The process

of sharing motivations is long and sometimes difficult, but highly necessary.

Therefore, training should deal with the value options that are at the heart of projects. We

can train good nurses, primary school teachers and instructors, but it might not be

sufficient. Often such training investment is used almost exclusively by those who have

benefited from it. In the light of their history and identity, NGOs should first of all

ensure that this work be turned into a service for the most vulnerable. NGOs should be

the bearers of such added value. Not only market actors should be developed, but also

civil society protagonists who are able to protect the most vulnerable.

FROM AID TO A POLITICAL ROLE: EVER-DEBATABLE ISSUES

Regarding NGOs, above and beyond their development potential, there remain - and

probably will do for a long time to come ñ controversial issues that we shouldnít try to

hide. Humanitarian aid still bears the legacy of a series of contradictions that must be

reflected on.

A large uncontrolled amount of interventions, in whatever situation, distorts the market

and, in terms of repercussions on economic and human resources, cannot be neutral in

the local area. In such situations there is an obvious need for coordination of methods

and the approach used in interventions, which is still at a highly embryonic stage.

Intervention is not valid for all contexts and situations. ìBasicî manuals strive to provide

the starting point for an experience to be implemented and do not represent the outcome -

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the perfect snapshot - of an accomplished experience. Complexity is often not in

harmony with the need to be immediately operative, but this requirement is often a

necessary condition for gaining media visibility, legitimising oneís actions in the eyes of

public opinion and obtaining the funding needed to support projects. NGOs should have

the courage - even when this entails the effort of working in the dark ñ to opt

systematically for the well-being of people.

In many cases, NGOs are the operational arm of governmental programmes. This gives

rise to the problem of NGOs freedom with respect to their governments, which are often

involved in the environmental or political disasters with which NGOs are concerned.

Therefore, NGOs have to choose between supporting the state, which implies a degree of

economic security whilst doing something useful and important, or attempting to assume

a decisive role with respect to the state with which they wish to interact, even though this

may result in conflict. The latter option leads to the creation of a civil society model that

promotes other forms of expression, methodologies and objectives with a view to

integrating and humanising strategic choices that are inevitably conditioned by a host of

compromises.

Obviously we want civil society to emphasise its non-governmental nature, not through a

sterile ideological dispute, but rather as part of an uncompromising dialogue in favour of

a policy that starts with people - and above all the poorest ñ in order to guarantee their

rights and justice.

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CONCLUSIONS

Civil society, including through NGOs, can play a vital role if it can manage to organise

itself to represent needs and requests that are concealed in the mesh of interventions and

which are often unable to emerge. Therefore, NGOs can be privileged interlocutors with

institutions if, starting from the bottom, they represent the demands arising in the areas

where they are set to operate.

The definition of ìnon-governmentalî points towards a working methodology regarding

problems and solutions that are different from or complementary to those which are

ìgovernmentalî and therefore institutional. The role of NGOs is to be ìin the midstî of

the tensions and problems of civil society and institutions.

It is an indispensable dimension that enables assumption of a vital role in accompanying

local social reconstruction processes. Their mission - to encourage linkage and

coordination with other situations - makes them an indispensable element, in operational

and cultural terms, in making their presence effective and useful in areas at risk.

Consequently, the management of all kinds of problem in these areas cannot do without

an ongoing and proactive synergy between NGOs, local resources and situations, civil

society and institutions. Only the capacity of these players to work together, by taking

advantage of their characteristic approaches and methodologies, can set in motion actions

which, supported by appropriate management, can lead to the onset of a desirable

process of change.

NGOs are aware that they must continually monitor their work in order to put forward

their vision of humankind and their action strategies in a credible way.

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An important indicator is the sustainability of their actions beyond emergencies: a

project aimed at people should contain possibilities for going beyond the immediate

intervention. A project does not belong to an NGO, but should rather become a local

asset to be taken care of seriously. NGOs should define the amount of time needed for

this to happen. This period helps to determine how and by which means the work is

carried out.

Another yardstick is provided by the gradual liberation of people from dependence on an

NGO. A steady decrease in the number of people turning to NGOs, who increasingly

address their requests to local structures, makes the work of the NGO itself more

convincing. Until people acquire or reacquire confidence in their local area, their doctors,

their administrators and their social operators, NGOs will continue to be a parallel

superstructure that reinforces a sense of impermanence and dependence. An NGO

should aim to overcome this perception that people have of its presence, and ascertain

how many persons manage to distance themselves from it, in order to evaluate whether

its doing a good job.

A third indicator is the capacity to update local needs analysis. Even though a project is

tied to a host of economic and time factors, a local area and the people who live there

should, however, be the real yardstick. Making do with a preliminary analysis, without

taking account of new elements that inevitably arise in a crisis area, runs the risk of

distancing planning assumptions from peopleís needs. By interviewing and asking

people for an assessment of how they are experiencing the presence and action of an

NGO can be an important tool for ascertaining how it is achieving the objectives it has

306
set itself. Basically, an NGO should act as a driving force in order that trust, planning

and the capacity to manage and solve a populationís problems should become the

peopleís own assets and resources. If an NGO replaces all these things, then it betrays its

own identity as a promoter of social change.

But this is not enough. NGOs also have the duty to transform their efforts into a

contribution towards the growth of a culture of solidarity and justice. Wars and violence

are not natural disasters. They are the outcome of precise political, economic and social

choices. NGOs should continue to propose reflection on the motivations behind these

choices, and study and investigate the problems they end up dealing with, so that, with

consistency and conviction, they may carry out the necessary function of condemnation

to tackle with determination the tragedies affecting those who subsequently pay the price

for such choices.

The work regarding provision of information, analysis and condemnation gives meaning

to projects in the field. If NGOs were to evade this task, efforts might become futile and

also unwittingly hinder the processes of change that in theory they wish to promote. This

is of no use to anyone: neither to NGOs, who would thus become a rough copy of the

existing government agencies; nor to institutions which would thereby lose a interlocutor

who is critical but provokes and stimulates them; and nor, above all, to all those who live

in a state of poverty and injustice due to war, because they would only be victims

designated as beyond hope, at the mercy of everyoneís indifference.

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REFERENCES

1. AA.VV., (2001), Líillusione umanitaria, la trappola degli aiuti e le prospettive delle

solidariet‡ internazionale, EMI, Bologna, Italia.

2. AA.VV., (1989), Ong e cooperazione allo sviluppo, AVSI, Roma, Italia

3. Anderson, Mary B. (1996 a.), Humanitarian NGOs in Conflict Intervention, in:

Chester A. Crocker/Fen Osler Hampson (Hrsg.), Managing Global Chaos: Sources of
and Responses to International Conflict, Washington D.C., US Institute for Peace, S.
343-354.

4. Anderson, Mary B. (1999 b.). Do no Harm. Supporting Local capacities for Peace
through Aid, Cambrdige, MA: Local Capacities for Peace Project - The Collaborative
for Development Action, Inc.

5. Bonomi, Aldo (2002), La comunit‡ maledetta, Edizioni di Comunit‡.

6. Capitini, Aldo (1978). Dove si colloca líazione nonviolenta. Su Azione Nonviolenta,

settembre-ottobre.

7. Caritas Diocesana di Roma, (di prossima pubblicazione), Uníesperienza in Kossovo.

Mitrovice / K.Mitrovica: ricostruire la pace in una societ‡ ferita. Atti del Convegno
del 24 aprile 2004, Roma, Italia

8. Caritas Internationalis (1999). Working for Reconciliation: a Caritas Handbook,

Caritas Internationalis.

9. Caritas Internationalis (2002). Peacebulding: a Caritas Training Manual, Caritas

Internationalis.

10. Caritas Italiana, (2003), Rehabilitation Proposals for Victims of Violence, Torture and
Cruel Punishments, REVIVI Project, Kosovo, (estratti non pubblicati dalla
presentazione del progetto).

11. Galtung, Johan (1975), Violence, Peace and Peace Research, in: Essay in Peace
Research, Vol. I Copenhagen: Christian Ejlers.

12. Gaudio Attilio, (1993), Cooperazione inganno dei poveri. Dagli affari alla solidariet‡,
EMI, Bologna.

13. Herman, Judith (1992), Trauma and Recovery, Basic Books, New York

14. Marchisio, Sergio (1985), Le ong internazionali e la cooperazione allo sviluppo,

Fratelli Palombi Editori, Italia.

15. Vaux, Tony (2002), Líaltruista egoista. Analisi critica degli interventi umanitari in
situazioni di guerra e carestia, EGA, Torino, Italia

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 CHAPTER 15

MENTAL HEALTH DISABILITIES

AND POST-CONFICT ECOMOMIC AND SOCIAL RECOVERY

Robert J. Muscat, Ph.D.

ABSTRACT

The interactions between mental health and socioeconomic functioning are complex and
much remains to be learned. Causation certainly runs both ways. Problems of mental ill
health affecting the economic, social, and learning behavior of significant numbers of
people can have deleterious effects on post-conflict socioeconomic recovery. Community
dynamics and recovery experience, and general employment and economic conditions,
good or bad, feed back on the prospects for individualsí mental health recovery. It
would be surprising if, for many of those who have experienced these traumatic recovery
conflicts, the interactions were unimportant for the restoration of either mental health or
effective socioeconomic functioning. This chapter reviews the relationship between
mental health and social and economic recovery.

The economic losses stemming from ill health - for the individual, the family, and the

society and economy generally - have been well established and quantified in the large

literature on health economics. These losses - more documented and analyzed in

developed than in developing countries - consist of a) the costs of medical treatment; b)

costs imposed on family care-givers; c) in the case of mortality, the years of work

unrealized and the loss of the individualís human capital; d) from disabilities, the income

foregone during lost work days or from reduced productivity at work; d) the costs of

welfare support of the ill and disabled. To avoid such losses and the suffering involved,

societies also spend substantial amounts on health maintenance and disease prevention,

including health education, inoculation, natal care, potable water, environmental

sanitation, etc.

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In developing countries, health status is typically poorer than in wealthier countries.

Resources available for health maintenance and disease prevention are generally very

inadequate. Treatment resources are often concentrated in urban areas. Some diseases

long reduced to minimal occurrence in wealthier countries remain widespread in

developing countries.

Although health statistics are relatively weak in developing countries, they are sufficient

to outline the enormity of the unmet needs. The WHO Commission on Macroeconomics

and Health found that the economic losses from ill health in developing countries have

been large and underestimated. The Commission cited quantifiable losses from major

specific diseases. ìIn sub-Saharan Africa losses due to HIV/AIDS are estimated to be at

least 12% of annual GNP. Economic development in malaria-free zones is at least 1%

higher per year than in areas where malaria is endemic.î Evidence suggests ìeach 10%

improvement in life expectancy is associated with an increase in economic growth of

about 0.3% to 0.4% per year, other growth factors being equal.î Most of the worldís

children who are not immunized, and virtually all of the women who die annually in

pregnancy and childbirth, live in developing countries (1). The Commission estimated

that eight million lives could be saved every year and very substantial economic benefits

could be realized if their recommended increases in health investment were realized. The

projected economic benefits were on the order of six times the recommended investment.

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All of the above addresses problems of physical illness and applies to developing

countries under ìnormalî circumstances. In those developing countries emerging from

violent conflicts, the problems of ill health are greatly compounded. Depending on the

scale, duration, and intensity of the violence, post-conflict countries have been left with

problems such as a) large numbers of disabled persons and a continuing long-term

increase in the disabled as vast numbers of land mines claim new victims month after

month; b) a collapsed health infrastructure; c) cohorts of children unprotected due to

lengthy suspensions of inoculation programs; d) large numbers of widow-headed

households with nutritional and other health risk exposures, often compounded by legal

and traditional gender biases that create land, credit and other obstacles for female

cultivators; e)obstacles to rural economic recovery, even to subsistence levels, when

displaced populations return to holdings that have been degraded due to destruction of

irrigation facilities, terraces, storage and marketing structures, and environmental

damage; f) degradation of cultural and social capital, and of pre-conflict communal

networks and authority and dispute-resolution systems.

The mental health consequences of these conflicts have been much less studied than the

physical consequences. Nevertheless, there are indications that mental health

consequences may have wide ramifications for societal recovery and for economic

behavior - e.g. labor force participation, individual productivity, production-related

collective or cooperative action, investment and savings behavior, school educability or

the processes of economic recovery. Such deleterious effects may need to be taken into

account by non-health professionals responsible for designing and implementing

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recovery programs in agriculture and rural development, and education, in particular, and

possibly in other areas. Such consequences could be particularly significant where the

numbers of individuals and households affected by these problems is large. As the

survey results presented in earlier chapters indicate, the numbers can be especially

substantial as a proportion of a population when large fractions of that population have

experienced displacement, deprivation, and torture and other physical and emotional

trauma. In short, the scale and severity of these consequences moves the problem of

mental health beyond the confines of the health system per se.

Studies in a few countries with advanced health data show that mental health problems

can be extensive even in societies that in their recent history, and for most age cohorts,

have not undergone anything remotely resembling the violent conflicts many developing

countries have experienced in the last three-to-four decades. For the European Union

countries as a whole it has been estimated that 20% of the adult working population has

some type of mental health disorder at any given time. In the US more than 40 million

people are estimated to have some mental illness. Studies also show the economic

consequences for both the individuals and families affected and for the enterprises where

they are employed, in the form of lost income, the costs of treatment, work errors and

accidents, work days lost, rapid labor turnover, conflicts with fellow workers and

supervisors, and so on. In the US, mental/emotional disabilities are cited as causing 200

million lost workdays each year; in the UK, 80 million (2). In the EU, the three leading

causes of disability are mental disorders, cardiovascular disease and muscular-skeletal

disorders.

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If comparable studies were available for post-conflict developing countries, one would

expect high incidence but very different profiles of mental disorder, etiology, and

behavioral consequences. We know from studies of a few refugee populations that the

incidence of acute clinical depression and PTSD can range between 40-70%. Prevalence

among the population that has remained in place during these conflicts is probably lower,

but still above the rates found in non-conflict countries (3). A good portion of a total

post-conflict population will be able to adapt and cope well, as individuals, if the post-

conflict environment is secure and experiencing economic recovery. But sizable fractions

will remain suffering from either disabling psychiatric illness or severe psychological

reactions to trauma (4).

Instead of deriving from dysfunctional family environments, abuse in childhood,

employment anxieties, individual physiological imbalances, etc., the large scale of

mental illness in post-conflict developing countries is seen to derive from the widespread

physical and emotional trauma, fear, destruction of communities and institutions,

betrayals and loss of trust, and social and cultural degradation that have characterized

many of these conflicts. Persons with mental health problems in developed countries

have the substantial advantage, compared with those in post-conflict developing

countries, of residing in relatively supportive circumstances. The former have the benefit

of an array of mental health institutions and cadres of mental health professionals; easily

accessed modern medication; financial support networks; supportive legislation; and

specialized training and employment opportunities. The prospects for their broader

environment, their communities and cultures, are relatively peaceful and assured. In

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short, the environment is positive and enhancive for treatment and socioeconomic

integration.

In post-conflict situations, the conditions surrounding the ill are typically very different.

Health providers of any kind may be in very short supply. Mental health professionals

are likely to be few in number. Extended families may generally be reduced in size

where the violence has been widespread. Early return to economic viability, even at

subsistence levels, may be difficult for families now short of former adult male heads of

household. Destruction of farm tools, irrigation channels, seed stocks, and other

agriculture production requirements creates great uncertainty and anxiety over near-term,

rural living standards, if not over sheer survival. Urban areas typically suffer from high

post-conflict unemployment. Returning refugees and resettled displaced persons, already

likely to have the highest incidence of mental health disorders, may also have higher

rates of unemployment than other groups (as in Bosnia, due to employment

discrimination and weaker social networks and job connections). Traditional communal

and religious support networks have frequently been degraded. The future may appear

highly uncertain and still threatening; the conflict may not have been completely

resolved through peace accords accepted by all the antagonistic parties; widespread

banditry may undermine local security; land mines may continue to claim new victims.

A general social breakdown may result from mass ethnic conflict, causing a loosening of

traditional restraints on criminal activity, domestic violence, rape, kidnapping, and

emergence of youth gangs. In short, the environment is not enhancing for those afflicted

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with mental health problems. The realities of post-conflict conditions are likely to

reinforce and compound the anxiety and depression of the trauma survivors.

The effects would also have to be measured in different forms. In many third-world

countries, much of the labor force is rural and self-employed in individual household

units. Lost work days or impaired productivity on the job, easily measured in the urban

employment context, are more difficult to identify in third-world agriculture, even if

effective statistical services were available. In addition, persons initially resettling into

bare subsistence, unable to fall back on formal social safety nets and surviving with

extended families or communities too decimated to provide much material support, may

not be able to afford outright idleness if they are to survive. Families in such dire straits

are often supported by international humanitarian aid. Such aid can have the undesirable

effect of creating dependency on the part of the beneficiaries, thereby delaying the

recovery process and undermining a return to self-confidence and self-reliance.

Examples of behavior that is dysfunctional from a socioeconomic recovery perspective

have been cited by observers and development practitioners in countries where one

would expect such problems to be evident, perhaps measurable. We cite some examples

from Cambodia, Rwanda, and Guatemala.

First, there have been indications of a highly foreshortened view of the future. In

economic terms, people apply a high discount rate to the present value of potential future

income or benefits. They are willing to forego very little short-term benefit in exchange

315
for the possibility that longer-term benefits will thereby be higher. In an early post-

conflict example this writer encountered in Cambodia, widowed heads of households

being helped under a UNICEF project resisted the project workersí advice that they turn

some of their land from rice to fruit tree cultivation. The trees would take 2-3 years to

bear the first fruit crop. The higher monetary income from selling fruit - but only after a

delay of 2-3 years - was less valuable in their perspective than the lower but faster return

from rice cultivation. Although these farmers would have been better off within a

ìrelatively shortî time by normal calculation, their lack of confidence in the

predictability of even the near future led them to make decisions that were not (in the

view of the aid providers) to their best advantage. They were not willing to forego

relatively quick and certain consumption in order to make an investment in larger future

consumption. After the passage of some time, according to one observer, the planting of

fruit trees was resumed.

In Rwanda, now 10 years after the genocidal conflict, some lasting dysfunctional

patterns may reflect a similar high time discount, or relative disregard for long-term

consequences of present actions. Efforts to stem the spread of HIV/AIDS by inducing

people to reduce widespread high-risk sexual behavior have apparently made little

headway. One possible explanation is that people discount the risk of a long-gestating

disease in a context where they see short-term survival as uncertain. Another possible

dysfunctional effect of depression over future uncertainties would be a neglect of capital

maintenance, i.e. present effort needed to maintain future consumption, comparable to

the fruit-tree foregone-investment example. In Rwanda, it has been observed that

316
numbers of farmers - ten years after the countryís genocidal conflict, and contrary to

their traditional, pre-conflict practices - are still neglecting the maintenance of terracing.

Terraces are essential for cultivation in Rwandaís hilly environment. Agricultural revival

has also been hampered by the disappointing scale of farmer replanting of coffee trees,

an important source of pre-conflict income and of export earnings (5).

Second, effects on educability of children have been seen in Rwanda. Young children

who experienced the genocide and its aftermath are now teenagers in secondary school.

The schools at this level are reported to have problems with students expressing rage and

acting violently. In the primary schools there are also behavior problems that may reflect

inter-generational effects of lingering psychological dysfunction within families. In

Burundi, poor school attendance has been associated with ìdistressî of the household

heads.

Third, trauma survivors may be unable to work individually, or to participate in

economically-relevant collective action. The individuals, and the community as a social

entity in all its aspects, may have been rendered incapable of internally generated

recovery. The depth of individual depression or lack of energy, the length of time it takes

for individuals or the community as a whole to recover, has been observed to depend on

the local context. Thus in one Guatemalan village where lives had been ìshattered,î

ìresignation and passivity as a strategy for survival is a heavy albatross that chokes the

possibility of recovery. Everyone in this ethnic Mayan village [San Andres] experienced

a tremendous sense of guilt, fear, depression, loss, abandonment, despair, humiliation,

317
anger, and solitude. For some...the blow was so devastating that it shattered their faith in

God.î

In some Guatemalan villages, the burden of the past has

paralyzed the present. They have retreated into passivity,
conformity, and mistrust...No crime, no matter how excessive,
no matter how cruel and degrading...was ever punished. There
were no limits, there was no recourse, and the result is a
profound sense of continued vulnerability...The past lurks in
the present and threatens to overwhelm the future (6).

In another Guatemalan village, by contrast, the inhabitants were able to shake the hold of

the past.

The unspeakable horrors this village [Santa Maria Tzeja]

suffered should logically throttle any progress, optimism,
energy, confidence, enthusiasm, ambition, or collective action
(political or social). Yet this extraordinary community has
become a model of success...Through human rights workshops,
speaking about the past...they have moved forward. Key to this
process is the public nature of their grieving...receiving
responses and reactions to their deep pain...Nevertheless, the
process of healing will take time (7).

The nature of anthropological observation - close, but one community at a time - makes

it difficult to draw generalizations about scale. Anthropological work on Cambodia

shows similar contrasts. Some observers have described what they perceive as general

psychosocial collapse, an inability to reconstitute the community as a functioning entity.

Others have described vigorous revival of social and economic life. Note that the author

of the above citation on Santa Maria Tzeja village considered its recovery

ìextraordinary,î implying that lingering communal torpor was the more common Mayan

post-conflict experience.

318
Ebihara and Ledgerwood, two anthropologists who have studied post-conflict Cambodia,

refer to assertions

In some development (and other) literature that Cambodian society

was so fragmented and atomized by the horrific conditions of [the
Khmer Rouge period] that people, even kinsmen, no longer help one
another. Frings...argues that Khmer no longer care about each other,
have no sense of moral obligation or genuine desire to help, are
motivated only by self-interest, and will provide assistance only if they
get something in return. Ovesen et al ...take this argument a step
further to assert that a Cambodian village is nothing more than a
cluster of houses that does not constitute a significant social entity, let
along a moral community (8).

Ebihara and Ledgerwood see a very different Cambodia. They speculate that perceptions

of more selfish and self-interested behavior than in the past might simply have been

drawn from the fact that post-conflict social circles are smaller; their internal assistance

behavior would be harder to see. Or a paucity of assistance behavior might reflect

necessity; people are too poor to share more than a food subsistence minimum. The

village (Svay) they have closely observed is different in many ways compared with its

pre-conflict social structure and dynamics. But the more positive picture it presents,

nevertheless, for both psychosocial and economic recovery may not be representative, or

may represent only a portion of rural Cambodia. The fact that Svay is only ten miles

from Phnom Penh and has good road access to the capital may mean that its conditions

are more favorable for recovery in all respects than the majority of Cambodiaís villages.

Despite the apparent building of a functioning village society in Svay, based on a

configuration of old and new relationships, authorities, and modes of interaction, the

319
inhabitants continue to report mental health disabilities nearly 20 years after the end of

the Khmer Rouge regime. Some of their reports point clearly to reduced work capacity.

Despite some material improvements to their lives, present-day

villagers obviously bear scars, both physical and emotional, from the
horrors of the Pol Pot regime...[M]any survivors are plagued by
profound fatigue, lack of strength, weak limbs, faulty memories, and
other problems that are thought to be the consequence of overly
arduous work, severe deprivations, and beatings during DK
[Democratic Kampuchea, the Khmer Rouge name for their state].
Villagers report such difficulties as: ìMy legs are still weak from all
the work; sometimes I collapse and fall down.î.... ìI canít lift heavy
things.î ìIíve forgotten how to read and write Khmer since Pol Pot.î
...We found no other evidence of serious psychological problems,
although it is quite possible some of the villagersí physical ailments
could be somaticizations of emotional reactions to past horrors (9).

While Ebihara and Ledgerwood record the emotional scars in Svay, they dismiss

ìperiodic statements...that Cambodia has become a nation of the mentally unbalanced.î

The effects of lingering psychological disability on social and economic behavior are

obviously subtle and difficult to separate from the complex of motivations and

circumstances that shape human behavior. The anthropological literature on Cambodia,

and the village observations cited from Guatemala, suggest that behavioral disabilities

have persisted long after the cessation of the period of genocidal trauma; that they can

affect, injuriously, work capacity and the rebuilding of communities and social capital;

and that the outcomes will vary widely from place to place.

A final example that illustrates economic constraint from social breakdown also comes

from Cambodia. A team from USAID studying post-conflict gender issues reported that

320
women (in interviews and focus groups) complained about ìa lack of trust and

unwillingness to help in time of need,î compared with pre-conflict days.

This problem has had a profound effect on micro credit programs in

Cambodia. It is noteworthy that the average size of self-help group for
credit ranges from three to five, quite low compare with other
developing countries. A number of women indicated that they would
only join immediate family members for group credit programs.
Because of the difficulty of convincing non-related individuals to work
together, credit groups have established new requirements. Relatives
may be members of the same economic group, but they must
physically live in separate households (10).

To develop an accurate picture of prevalence and of the specific ways post-conflict

mental health disabilities affect both household and communal economic recovery we

need a different source of information and data, viz. household sample surveys of living

conditions and health, including mental health, status. The World Bank has made a start

in this direction. Data sets that may yield some of the needed insights appear to be

available for a (very) few post-conflict countries (Rwanda, Burundi, Bosnia, Cambodia).

Inserting critical mental health status questions into the Living Standards Measurement

Surveys (LSMS), which are the standard survey instruments the Bank supports for

poverty studies, could provide reliable quantified (single country and comparative)

analyses of disability prevalence and the association of such disabilities with other

household characteristics and dynamics - of health behavior, school attendance, labor

force activity, income, and so on. (Unfortunately, the modest funds needed for analyzing

some of this data are not yet in hand.) Other sources are needed to increase our

understanding of the psychological dimensions of post-conflict community

reconstitution. A systematic mining of available anthropological studies should be

helpful and not very costly. Another source could be a review of donor project

321
experience as captured by easily accessible project completion reports and evaluations of

post-conflict projects in which community response has been a central component.

Longitudinal studies would greatly enrich our understanding of the conditions that

enhance recovery and coping behavior over time. Service information routinely obtained

from people who seek mental health assistance in primary care or referral facilities could

be enriched with a standard set of questions on household economic status and activity,

and on the situation of the householdís children. Such information, gathered over time,

could provide direct observation on linkages between mental health, socioeconomic

functioning, and inter-generational effects. The richest source (probably the most

difficult to arrange and finance) would be longitudinal studies that combine individual

and household, and community, level observation and analyses, i.e. individual/family

psychosocial and economic tracking set within analyses of the socioeconomic

evolution/recovery of the same set of (selected, representative) communities.

CONCLUSIONS

The interactions between mental health and socioeconomic functioning are complex and

much remains to be learned. Causation certainly runs both ways. Problems of mental ill

health affecting the economic, social, and learning behavior of significant numbers of

people can have deleterious effects on post-conflict socioeconomic recovery. Community

dynamics and recovery experience, and general employment and economic conditions,

good or bad, feed back on the prospects for individualsí mental health recovery. It

would be surprising if, for many of those who have experienced these traumatic recovery

322
conflicts, the interactions were unimportant for the restoration of either mental health or

effective socioeconomic functioning.

Our review points to two areas for next steps: (1) advancing the state of knowledge, an

endeavor where the international agencies can make major contributions, and (2) at the

national level, ensuring that problems of the conflictís psychosocial effects are fully

understood by the general recovery planning authorities, and that potential

complementarities between psychosocial recovery and economic recovery are identified

and acted upon.

(1) Advancing Knowledge: The need for, and increasing availability of, effective (and

cost-effective) mental health interventions, is becoming more widely recognized. More

needs to be done to advance our knowledge of the interactions between mental health

and socioeconomic recovery. For example, building on the results of the first inclusions

of mental health questions in LSMS surveys, the World Bank should expand the data-

gathering referred to above by introducing the relevant (and perhaps more numerous)

questions in similar surveys in more post-conflict countries. For selected countries where

the results of such surveys, plus the knowledge of the national health authorities, indicate

that mental health consequences are of a serious magnitude, the Bank and WHO should

consider undertaking more in-depth research on consequences and economic

interactions, along the lines suggested above. Greater understanding of scale and

interactions - and the effects on overall recovery would be very useful for both the health

authorities and the planners of general recovery. As the authorities most knowledgeable

323
and most responsible, the national health professionals are in the best position to make a

case for such research to their overall recovery planning authorities and to WHO, the

Bank, and other relevant international agencies.

(2) Psychosocial and Economic Complementarities: Greater dialogue between national

authorities responsible for mental health and those responsible for overall socioeconomic

recovery should serve to strengthen professional understanding and the whole array of

recovery interventions. Mental health professionals should be included in the planning of

service and reconstruction programs at the community level, especially programs

involving populations that have experienced violence, fear, economic devastation and

other war trauma, such as widow-headed households, child soldiers, and refugees and

internally displaced persons. Stronger dialogue and coordination between health

authorities and general planning authorities (planning commissions, ministries of finance

and/or economics, etc.) would benefit both sides. Overall planning authorities would

gain greater understanding of how conflictís psychosocial legacies may be affecting and

constraining the general recovery/reconstruction effort. They would gain a heightened

understanding of the need for allocating resources to address these legacies. Working

together, both sides would be better able to identify specific policies and programs that

have the potentiality of complementing the direct programs and therapeutic interventions

of mental health professionals. Examples of such areas would include job training, job

creation and food-for-work programs, community development, agriculture extension,

sports and physical education, adult education and literacy, and preparation for

demobilization and reintegration of adult and child ex-combatants.

324
REFERENCES
1
WHO, Report of the WHO Commission on Macroeconomics and Health, April 2002,
A55/5, p.1.
2
Gabriel, Phyllis, & Gaston Harnois, Mental Health and Work: Impact, Issues and Good
Practices, 2000, ILO & WHO.
3
Baingana, Florence, ìConflict Prevention and Reconstruction,î Social Development
Notes, No.13, October 2003, World Bank.
4
Silove, D,.Ekblad, R.Mollica, ìThe Rights of the Severely Mentally Ill in Post-Conflict
Societies,î Lancet, 2000, 355:1548-1549.
5
For these observations on Rwanda, I am indebted to Menahem Prywes of the World
Bank.
6
Beatriz Manz, ìTerror, Grief and Recovery: Genocidal Trauma in a Mayan Village in
Guatemala,î in Alexander L. Hinton, Annihilating Difference: The Anthropology of
Genocide, 2002, Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, pp. 300-301.
7
Ibid. P.301.
8
Ebihara, May, & Judy Ledgerwood, ìAftermaths of Genocide: Cambodian Villagers,î
in Hinton, p. 277.
9
Ibid., p.285.
10
Kumar, Krishna, Hannah Baldwin, and Judy Benjamin, War, Genocide, and Women in
Post-Conflict Cambodia. P.14. Washington: USAID

325
 CHAPTER 16

EMPLOYMENT FOCUSED INTERVENTIONS IN POST-CONFLICT

SOCIETIES

Solvig Ekblad, PhD, Karin Johansson Blight, PhD (cand.)

and Fredrick Lindencrona, PhD (cand.)

ABSTRACT

The Swedish Development Assistance Agency (1) (Sida) amongst others emphasise that
human rights needs to be introduced into development to sustain peace. A major
dilemma is the few resources and need for special skills (2). Four concepts of public
health: equity, participation, subsidiary, and sustainability are essential to violence
reduction, and are vital to healthy societies (3). This chapter focuses on these four areas
with a special emphasis on the association between employment and mental health.

PRINCIPLES GUIDING THE UNDERSTANDING OF HEALTH

Post-conflict countries are at risk of experiencing a conflict trap, i.e. a negative circle

where war risks repetition through the erosion of social supports, and where adultsí risks

bringing the conflict to their children. To secure the constructive process of national and

local recovery, peace needs to be based on activities guided by evidence and not

ideology (4). However, according to Silove (2) ìmental health issues are poorly

understood both by helping agencies and affected communities, interventions often are

undervalued, and controversy amongst professionals about priorities tends to undermine

(page 95)
advocacy of servicesî . Many different factors are of importance such as

rebuilding infrastructure, securing food provision and production, reconciliation,

securing community health and mental health indigenous service provision especially for

those with pre-existing mental disturbances as well as to those with normative communal

326
reactions to stress, and restoration of trust and a hope for the future. Important to this

process is the definition health its social impact. An understanding of the latter draws

from our currently on-going research project entitled Health Promoting Introduction that

focuses on the development of a model to be used in the reception and resettlement of

persons of refugee or forced migration status in Sweden.

In this project, we use a theoretical framework comprising dimensions of health at

different societal levels: individual, interpersonal, organizational, community, and at the

policy level, as suggested by McLeroy et al (1988) (5). The framework is grounded in

the World Health Organizationís (WHO) understanding of health promotion, which

recognises that health is strongly related to the life circumstances of people (6). Health

is understood as a) every person having the possibilities to realize their ambitions, have

their needs met, and change and cope with their environment, b) living in their everyday

environments and c) having access to health care, regardless of their personal

characteristics. Also embedded in health promotion theory is the standpoint that public

policy, in different societal fields and supportive environments promotes these values

(7), and are necessary for action taken to promote health, mental health, and well being

(6).

To further understand the particular life - and individual mental health context of

refugees or people with refugee like background, we are using the five adaptive systems

developed by Silove (1999) (8), for reflection at each of the different societal levels. In

short, the five systems can be described to include: (1) restoration of interpersonal bonds

327
at different levels of society; (2) the re-establishment of security and safety; (3) the

development of a social framework that promote development of new identities and roles

(eg work, training and leadership); (4) respect for justice and human rights, and (5)

respect for peoplesí need for meaning and their belonging to religious, political, spiritual

or social or other important existential sources.

HEALTH AND HUMAN RIGHTS ñ THE MEETING OF PSYCHOSOCIAL

NEEDS

Societal responsibility for the health of individuals has evolved through parallel

developments in the fields of health and human rights, and nowadays the fields are

merged into one (9). The WHO states that the most effective way to promote sustainable

long-term peace is a commitment to social justice (10). Health definitions, as clearly

proposed in the health definition by Mollica, 2003 (11), states that ìHealth is a personal

and social state of balance and well-being in which people feel strong, active, wise and

worthwhile; where their diverse capacities and rhythms are valued; where they may

decide and choose, express themselves, and move about freelyî. The understandings of

well-being, such as in Buchananís (12) argument that ìthe prospects for individual well-

being dependent on the justice of social conditionsî, also express the linkage between

health and human rights, and emphasizes that an individual in an unhealthy environment

minimize the options to experience health or well-being.

Considering this relationship, Murray and Lopez (14) have highlighted the WHO and

World Bankís prediction that war will be amongst the top ten causes of disability and

328
death by 2020. Much evidence exists regarding high exposure to traumatic life-events in

complex emergencies (14) and the seriously health damaging effects it has on individuals

and societies (15). Unique differences exist; for example, the historical background

underlying the type of outbreak of war, which in turn creates different post-conflict

recovery settings (16). Moreover, human rights and trauma reactions may vary

depending on context including for example type of warfare, length of conflict, and

actors involved in conflict (e.g. the use of child soldiers). Today, it is globally recognised

that the tackling of basic threats to health such as hunger, poverty, illiteracy, insecurity,

poor health, and mental illness may reduce outbreaks of war, terrorism, and other

violence. There is, however, still little consensus on how to eliminate these basic threats.

For example, models of best practice, services and donor involvement coordination in

the context of complex emergencies exist in theory but are limited in relation to

sustainable activities and follow-up (17). Additionally, as further argued by Mollica and

McDonald (11) the ìexisting paradigm for humanitarian assistance and post-conflict

recovery is limited, and attention to mental health issues is inadequate. This is largely the

result of a flawed model of assistance, where refugees are defined by their plight, with

little regard for their identity prior to the conflict and with little consideration for their
(page 2)
participatory role in their societyís recovery and rehabilitationî . Concerns have

also been raised that donors need to address a minimum amount of key mental health

indicators when supporting development in complex emergencies and post-conflict

societies (18). Furthermore, many conflicts and their victims are not recognised and aid

not directed due to Öîlack of media attention and donor funding combined with

bureaucratic barriers and xenophobiaî(19). Other criticism lifted regards that of non-

329
transparent organisational boundaries, poor inter-organisational communication, lack of

mutual awareness and understanding, and inter-organisational competition.

Employment is a human right as set out in Article 23 in the Universal Declaration of

Human Rights and, it is an area in which society can have a large impact. Despite this,

violations of the right to work are amongst those of recorded human rights violations

happening in more than 100 states and territories around the world (20), and the

International Labour Organization (ILO) states that the world unemployment rate raised

above 6 % providing a figure of the number of unemployed to be over 180 million in the

year 2000 (21). Identified globally as one of the most important social determinants of

health, employment is often seen as key in tackling social exclusion (22) i.e. the

multidimensional disadvantage of access to societal resources such as education,

networks, and support (23). Nevertheless, of those in the worldís population who are in

employment, ILO estimates 20 ñ 27 % to be categorised as ëworking poorí (those who

work and belong to poor households) (24), and argues for making ìdecent workî (i.e.

the productive and secure work, the respect of labour rights, the provision of adequate

income, the offering of social protection, and the inclusion of social dialogue, union

freedom, collective bargaining and participation (24) a global goal (25). Decent work is

seen by the ILO as a key ingredient in the work for a fair and inclusive globalization to

build a more secure world (29), and theÖ ìurgent priority is to combine the creation of a

large number of jobs to decrease the unemployment rate with a reduction in the number

of working poor and an increase in the quality of employmentî page 7, 24. However, as we

will show, research and knowledge gathered in post-conflict societies or amongst

330
populations of refugee or forced migrants, focusing on employmentís role for mental

health is limited. In international initiatives, the view of employment as a social

determinant of health is rarely acknowledged in practice and not a part of health or

mental health programs.

SOCIAL AND HEALTH BENEFITS OF EMPLOYMENT

In the Western scientific research literature, evidence exists concerning the relationship

of employment relates to ill health (including the social, and health benefits of

employment). This relationship is often described in terms of selection and causation

(26)(27). The selection hypothesis states that poor mental/health increases the risk of

unemployment7, whilst the causation hypothesis states that lack of work leads to poor

mental health and that re-entry to employment leads to recovery of good mental health6.

Existing evidence supports both hypotheses (28), however, little is known about these

processes in refugee populations or post-conflict settings, processes that may have been

triggered by the outbreak or recurrence of war (29).

Because of the limited attention to employmentís role in health promotion, lessons may

be learned from other research fields in non-conflict societies. In an extensive review,

Kasl and Jones (2000)29 argue that a) the evidence indicates that the impact of

unemployment on mental health and well-being negatively is strong, despite the fact that

it is a complex and multifaceted experience, b) psychological distress, specifically

depression, increases through unemployment, and that reemployment can reverse this

increase in distress. The reasons for unemploymentís negative effects on health seem to

331
relate to the often multiple and accumulated disadvantage among people in

unemployment situations, and a wish has been expressed in Western societies for a

combined approach in policies to provide for Öîpositive help in the shape of social and

emotional as well as improved financial support, as well as the opportunity for education

and trainingî (30). Further supporting the role of employment is the ILO, who argues

that economic security not only promotes personal well being, happiness and tolerance,

and benefits growth and development, but also, in combination with other factors,

promotes social stability (36)(31). Nonetheless, the type of employment matters too, and

segregation between younger and older workers, and between men and women remains

globally high in all informal and formal economies. Women constitute the majority of

the worldís poor (70 % of 1.3. Billion), and earn less than men and are largely

undertaking unpaid work (32). Still, evidence relating to whether the negative impact of

unemployment differs depending on gender is, nevertheless, inconclusive29. However, a

seemingly successful method (33) used to tackle this gender inequality is the micro-

enterprise method, referring to the ìsmall scale income generation projectsî (34) where

loans or credit is given to poor people, particularly women (35) living in for instance

refugee camps18. Conclusive evidence supporting a direct positive health effects is, to

our knowledge, not yet available (36)(37). In addition some studies exists, conducted in

developing country settings, with findings of higher prevalence of common mental

disorders amongst informal workers (self-employed and underemployed) than amongst

persons in formal employment (persons formally placed in the labour market) (38).

332
Our conclusions from available research are that employment works as a protective

factor against the development of mental health problems in the local post-conflict

context. Moreover, it is possible that employment can be seen as a contributor, as it

could works against what Marsella, Levi and Ekblad (39) acknowledge asÖ the ìsense

of hopelessness and anomie that often occur when political instability undermines the
(page 58)
possibility to changeî . In addition, employment can aid in the empowerment

processes needed, as argued by the same authors: Öì[w]hen citizen helplessness occurs,

efforts should be made to encourage grass-roots movements to promote perceptions of

empowerment and to minimize stress. Whenever possible, development should use the

strengths and resources of the people affected to minimize the experience of alienation,

helplessness, and dependencyî (page 58). A significant method to use to combat the social

problems associated with violence is micro-enterprise. It is also useful to understand the

importance employment has in post-conflict settings in providing salaries and self-

sufficiency. Employmentís contribution to other areas in the post-conflict setting, for

example in relation to the rebuilding of infrastructure in the context of urban planning

(such as the restoration of roads or water supply) (40), the strengthening of identity/roles

in individuals, the creation of future hope, the prevention of social isolation, the securing

of housing and/or in providing a ësocialization contextí (41), which aids in the shaping of

societyís well-being and future, should also be acknowledged. Salaried adults in just and

favourable work is, naturally, what to strive for and is one of the most important factors

in tackling and preventing poverty amongst families and in contributing to human rights

and human dignity (42).

333
MENTAL HEALTH PROMOTION EMPHASISING EMPLOYMENT

In order to promote good mental health and well being and prevent poor mental health

through interventions supporting self-sufficiency amongst civilians and stability in local

contexts, and at the same time improve the knowledge base in the post-conflict society,

we suggest a combined research and action method entitled Mental Health through

Employment. The idea and design of the model derive largely from theory used, and

evidence and experiences collected in our current research project Health Promoting

Introduction (HPI). After a brief presentation of the suggested design, some experiences

and preliminary results gathered in the HPI project are presented. The chapter ends with

a concluding summary and discussion on the usefulness of the model in post conflict

settings.

Action Plan: Mental Health Through Employment Model Development

As presented in Figure 1, the suggested research-based model development of Mental

Health through Employment involves four phases, of which the first phase is split into

two.

1. Survey phase:

a. Rapid post-conflict and health appraisal (RCHA) of the local post-conflict

context, refers to the process of collecting background data of importance

for coming interventions, and is complementary to the strategy

development process. The data of interest could relate to what current

knowledge indicates, i.e. the effectiveness of interventions Öìdepend on

the resources, context, culture and historical background of the affected

334
 societyî (page 93, 1). After completion, a decision can be made on whether it

is appropriate to continue with the next step below.

b. Strategy development, refers to a process of four stages, where: 1)

Identification, that is, actors important for the implementation of the

interventions are identified; 2) Formation, that is, individuals and service

system collaboration are strengthened. For example one significant

component would be to form multi-agency ësteeringí groups, in which

actors identified in the previous stage can participate. 3) Implementation,

that is, participation-based activities for the local population through

collaborative efforts, under supervision and support from external

researchers are being implemented, such as in order to co-ordinate the

recruitment and integrating the perspectives of rehabilitation and îdecent

workî, multi-professional teamwork involving actors like mental health

specialists and employment professionals could work with local

inhabitants in strengthening participative decision-making and

collaboration, including for instance, the recognition of motivation and

talent in relation to employment and individual future employment related

ambitions. Finally, 4) Follow-up that is, where interventions are

followed-up.

c. The sum of knowledge: This final stage involves the assessment and

integration of all experiences and data collected through previous stages,

the definition of locally identified key indicators concerning health and

335
 employment, and where the knowledge and experiences gathered is

addressed in a document describing the locally defined model.

2. Establishing a Sustainable Model

3. Implementation Phase

These two phases include the establishment of a sustainable long-term model of Mental

Health through Employment in the local context; and implementation of it in one or more

settings with an emphasis on structure rather than exploration. Comparisons with other

possible Mental Health through Employment settings can also be made to inform the

evaluation with a stronger evidence base.

4. The Evaluation Phase, the final phase, refers to the evaluation of the model in

relation to other models and/or other settings, the analysis of evidence collected

and experiences in accordance with the key indicators identified in phase 1, and

the reporting of results. The evaluation of the process could also include the

assessment of health, employment, participation, and collaboration. In addition, it

would be appropriate for it to be in line with human rights principles and assess

the availability, accessibility, acceptability, and quality6 of the service/s provided.

Our Experiences From Using Health Promotion With Employment Focus

Brief project description:

The first author of this chapter (SE) was commissioned and financed in 2001 to co-

ordinate a project entitled Health Promoting Introduction by the Swedish Integration

336
Board (co-financed by the European Refugee Fund). The board undertook a study into

the consideration of health and health challenges in the reception of newly arrived

persons of refugee or forced migrants. This project includes the following objective:

ì[T]o develop a model, focusing on the psychosocial health of newly arrived persons,

that can be used for collaboration between different departments within the public sector,

the private sector, social networks and the newly arrived immigrants in the

municipalitiesî (43).

Through this project we have arrived at the following findings on health/ mental health

and employment. We explored employment in relation to mental health through a cross

ñ sectional survey in 2001 directed to a sample (not included in our intervention study)

drawn from the largest population of refugees immigrating to Sweden in the 1990ís (44).

Although no cause ñ effect relationship can be drawn from the data, associations were

found supporting earlier findings conducted within non-refugee populations, as outlined

in this chapter. One outcome measure used was the experiences of 30 symptoms, which

were grouped into a low symptom group and a high symptom group in analysis. In the

low symptom group the majority was working, while in the high symptom group a

minority was working. The latter group showed higher proportions of unemployed,

females and persons living in an urban as opposed to a rural setting. Persons in the low

symptoms group showed significantly higher proportions of feeling important and of

being understood, at home, at work as well as in society in general than did persons in

the high symptom group.

337
The design of the project was also based on the ambition of developing sustainable

mental health promotion strategies for refugees through participative and collaborative

interventions. The interventions we run are currently in the implementation stage,

equivalent to that of the implementation stage in phase 1b in Figure 1. In brief, our

intervention research and experience so far show (45)(46) that in order to build capacity

to affect mental health through participation, the necessary actors and relations between

actors have to be identified, and their commitment to contribute to this agenda must be

developed. A basic precondition for constructive development in favor of mental health

strategies is to support the local agencies to engage in joint problem-solving and

information exchange, aimed at setting up good collaborative relations to each crucial

actor. Local systems, where appropriate methods of collaboration at the

planning/administrative and operative levels are used also experience a possibility to

better meet the goals of employment and education in language than other types of

systems, and to enhance the development of positive reciprocal images between the

collaborating actors. Nevertheless, the process of collaborative development is a

challenging one where continuous struggles have to be overcome and new phases can be

entered only if the latest struggle was solved successfully.

In our project, we have experienced the formation of new relationships between

employers and agencies supporting the unemployed refugees. These relationships seem

to have made it easier for transitions into practice and new work opportunities for this

group. Furthermore, collaboration in this context appears to contribute to improved

breadth of services, and to compatibility of services. In order to achieve accessibility to

338
services for participants with health problems, primary health-care need to be involved in

planning the process for the individual participant or in administrative/planning of the

programme. Finally, although measurable and achievable targets in the Swedish

reception program still needs to be developed, findings from our project indicate that

methods for participative decision-making around personís (of refugee or refugee-like

background) own processes are positively related to the number of participants among

the refugees in the Introduction in Sweden that are in employment after ending the

Introduction.

The Usefulness Of The Mental Health Through Employment Model

Mental health promotion and employment implies long-term programs with decade-long

thinking for development, demanding focus and time. The Mental Health through

Employment approach described in this chapter has not only the ambitions to implement

the guidelines set out by the WHO regarding health promotion components. The

approach also aims to provide an integrated approach linking traditionally separated

fields together with the purpose of promoting mental health and societal recovery

through employment, embraced in an evidence-based framework. Much emphasis is on

the co-ordination of several sectors (e.g. public, business, voluntary) acting at different

levels to meet expressed as well as unexpressed psychosocial needs among persons who

are refugees or have refugee-like backgrounds. Collaboration between all levels together

with the experience of learning exchange and capacity building is embedded in the

framework with the intention of creating a ìbottom-up-top-down approachî, where

people are seen less as targets for intervention and more as responsible co-creators. This

339
process may involve identification and support to local bottom-up initiatives but also

new innovative initiatives identified through the process. Strategies could involve, for

instance, the engagement of the local population in identifying and carrying out needed

work for the improvements of the local area, and the whole process would probably

benefit from monitoring by human rights organisations. Specific areas of interest for

gathering evidence about are outlined in figure 2. These relate both the suggested model

itself but to needed knowledge in general, in the post-conflict setting.

Through the Mental Health through Employment model there is an opportunity to, at an

early stage to assess who does what, where, how and at what level to enhance the process

efficiency. This demands, however, the sharing of information, expertise, and learning of

progress and knowledge gaps with other actors, including donors, and needs to be built

on the development of trust between parties (47). For this reason, participation should be

voluntary and based on human rights principles. For collaborative action, all parties must

stimulate joint problem solving and creative solutions, and collaborative structures are

needed at planning, administrative, and operative levels. Certain risks may be identified,

such as whether all adult civilians wanting to work are allowed to work because of

discriminative structures is still in action or the potential obstruction to peace caused by

unresolved, latent or reoccurring conflict. In case of rapid changes, new rapid appraisals

will have to be conducted and fed into the strategy development (Figure 1). Instruments

to collect this information already exist such as the rapid appraisal approach developed

by the WHO (48). In the post-conflict setting, it could however be of relevance for the

rapid appraisal not only to include assessments in relation to health (including mental

340
health) status/problems but also understandings of the conflict (including for instance the

occurrence, frequency, and nature of human rights violations) and current context (such

as the communityís sense for reconciliation).

Moreover, the experiences and identification of key stakeholders experiences is

necessary in the strategy development process. Key stakeholders in the post-conflict

setting may include locally represented actors from the local, national and/or

international community acting in different areas such as local development (e.g. local

existing micro-enterprise), health and aid, human rights, truth and reconciliation but also

religion, culture and/or sports etc. Important knowledge for the actors to learn about

through the process relate to the understanding of the differences between Öîthose with

disabling psychiatric illnesses; those with severe psychological reactions to trauma; and

the majority who are able to adapt once peace and order are restoredî (49). International

researchers of relevant knowledge and background can contribute to this knowledge.

Moreover, research involvement may also be beneficiary to the process, as researchers

collect evidence and experience of success, contribute in reflection of the process, and

act as coordinators of the process. Finally, it is appropriate for the interventions to work

within a human rights framework, and to be based on experiences gathered from stage

1a) and b) (figure 1).

National policymakers have an important role in creating an environment in which local

bottom-up initiatives may be acknowledged and supported in collaboration with the

international community. The promotion of health and prevention of poor health implies

341
working with determinants of health and demands collaboration with other political

sectors, emphasising healthy public policy. Policy makers have the opportunity to act as

role models through the building of trust, vital to collaboration at all levels, and through

making policy makersí accountability to the people i.e. to all civilians within the nation

without discrimination, explicit. Strategies for combining mental health and employment

might be stimulated by creating shared funds for the development of the economy, the

rebuilding of social and physical infrastructure and mental health promotion. The

realisation of shared funding demands flexibility in funding sources and probably de-

categorisation of previously separated funding streams. International donors and

agencies are important actors in providing for such changes. Creating and supporting

policies and action, which allow for continuous learning from experiences and sharing

with others, and which includes a vision of a constructive and health-bringing

environment, would probably assist not only the individuals in local contexts which the

politicians and policy makers serve, but also the nation in the wider globalized context.

FUTURE RESEARCH AGENDA

A future research agenda is displayed in Figure 2.

342
 • Test the model for Mental Health through Employment stepwise from the survey
Figure 2: Research
phase to the Priorities
evaluationtophase
futherindevelop
several the understanding
post-conflict in this
settings, andfield
to make
comparisons in experiences and outcomes between the different settings
• Identify the health implications of unemployment and deskilling among post-
conflict inhabitants
• Explore further what specific role micro-enterprise may play in the Mental Health
through Employment model, and to health promotion in general
• Explore in what ways employment may support mental health of men and women,
and to identify if/what differences exists depending on gender
• Enhance the understanding of if and how employment may work as a protective
factor against posttraumatic stress, depression, and impaired social functioning
• Explore in what ways employment can aid in restoration of a future hope amongst
post-conflict populations
REFERENCES
• Explore employment as a tool in contributing to stability in general in the post-
conflict setting
• Identify barriers/facilities/facilitators and what is needed in order to support
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access to employment as perceived by post-conflict civilians
Figure 2: Research Priorities to further develop the understanding in this field.

343
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348
 CHAPTER 17

HUMAN RIGHTS AND MENTAL HEALTH

IN POST-CONFLICT RECOVERY

Eugene B. Brody, M.D.

ABSTRACT

Inhabitants of post-conflict societies, already traumatized by definition, suffer from the

loss of familiar structures of opportunity, and have higher proportions of psychologically
disturbed individuals than encountered in more stable settings. In this context they are
vulnerable to human rights violations, which further intensify the likelihood of
psychiatric disorder. Persisting antagonisms between protagonists and opponents of the
new order, and efforts to ensure security and behavioral conformity, can threaten civil
liberties. Lack of material resources may make it impossible to supply social
entitlements. Those who suffer most tend to be from previously marginalized and
stigmatized groups, including the chronically ill. At the same time efforts to remove
earlier restrictions on the freedom of some traditionally subjugated minorities, including
women, may place them at greater risk of human rights violations than before; the efforts
of international observers to ensure human rights standards can be impeded by adherence
to the principle of national sovereignty as well as appeals to restrictive cultural standards.
Efforts to deal with mental health concerns arising in the post-conflict context have
included trauma centers, efforts at cultural change, centers for the study of violence and
reconciliation, human relations training for police, human rights training for staffs of
primary health care centers, national peace committees and other devices aimed at
promoting inter-ethnic tolerance, attempts to train journalists for unbiased reporting, and
institutions modeled after South Africaís Truth and Reconciliation Commission. In most
instances modest, mixed or inconclusive results have been noted, with the greatest
success seeming to require an emerging charismatic leader to work with the new
institutional effort.

349
INTRODUCTION

This chapter addresses the human rights framework in which post-conflict, and by

definition traumatized, societies engage in the work of recovery. Recovery or restitution

may be aimed at restoring a previous status quo or at building a new social organization

to help protect and repair the mental health of individuals and groups. In any event the

process is one beset with uncertainties.

Uncertainties In Using The Designation ìPost-Conflictî Society

The designation, ìpost-conflictî was initially used to indicate countries in the aftermath

of civil war, ending as the result of negotiated peace accords or with the victory of one

party (Kumar, 1999). However, ìsocietyî, or ìcivil societyî as the term is often used,

refers to an evolving entity, which is not necessarily identical with a country, nation or

state.

The designation, ìpost-conflictî, can obscure continuing, often historically rooted,

disagreements between factions, e.g. tribal, political, religious or ethnic groupings.

Typically, the persisting antagonism between former adversaries is muted, despite

mistrust and suspicion. Life for citizens following the cessation of overt conflict

depends, in part, upon the nature of the victorious power, their relationship to it, and its

relations with the vanquished. îPeace-keepingî, ìnation-buildingî and social

reconciliation after overt hostilities have ended may have to take place in the presence of

persisting external or internal threats as well as recurring humanitarian emergencies and

the destruction of pre-war arrangements for keeping order and sustaining the population.

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If the pre-war arrangements were oppressive, the victor will try (at least nominally) to

avoid re-instituting them. In the absence of other viable arrangements, however, a lack of

structure may contribute to prolonged periods of social disarray in which citizens, while

theoretically appreciating new freedoms, may call for renewed authoritarian methods to

restore freedom. This can be especially marked in societies, which are the residuals of

failed dictatorships. People suffering from organizational disarray after actual hostilities

have ceased, may, in retrospect, forgive dictatorial methods as the price for an orderly

society. However, uncertainty about putting a new government in place, and distrust of

new centers of power, can be significant no matter what the character of the previous

leaders. Under these circumstances, as the loser in the conflict is the target of the new

authorityís efforts to maintain order, they may be experienced, as oppressive and a

violation of human rights.

Uncertainties In Using The Designation, ìHuman Rightsî

Interpretations of the concept of ìhuman rightsî depend upon who uses it and in what

socio-economic and political context. It can be used in a cynical, idealistic, philosophical

or legal manner. The establishment of international rights tribunals has made it possible

to publicly try national leaders for rights violations and for citizens to file complaints

regarding such violations. But the concept is vulnerable to exploitation. Nations have

sought election to membership in the contemporary United Nationsí Commission on

Human Rights as a way of deflecting criticism of their own internal rights violations.

The human rights characteristics of post-conflict societies can impact mental health

directly, through the establishment of health and social support policies, the actualities

351
of therapeutic or preventive endeavors, and the availability of institutional aids to

individual and group coping. Rights sometimes appear to be in conflict with each other.

Thus, the efforts of open societies to protect themselves from destructive influences raise

the question of whether or not civil liberties must be sacrificed in order to ensure the

right to security.

Civil rights cannot logically be considered in isolation from socio-economic (basic

survival) and health rights. When the resources basic to survival, also considered rights,

cannot be obtained because of scarcity, efforts to obtain them are typically granted

priority over civil rights. However, most conferences on human rights, and most

accusations of rights violations, have focused their attention on freedoms, including that

from cruel and unusual punishment or bodily violation, rather than the support necessary

for health and basic physical survival.

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

The Assumptive Basis Of Agreed-Upon Human Rights

The idea of ìhuman rightsî, like other ideas about right and wrong behavior (implying

the presence of a moral decision-making faculty) is a human construction. Despite the

influence of local culture and environment people everywhere share assumptions about

their own nature and that of others who resemble them (see Brody, 1993). Central is

some approximation of the idea that a special quality at the core of being human is

inherent to oneís status as a self-reflective, sentient being. In the case of pre-literate

societies this quality has often included the element of uniqueness, the self-designation

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of the group in question, in contrast to all others, as ìtheî people. When humans are

conceived as creations of an all-powerful God, the special quality, not shared by other

living creatures, may be considered a divine spark.

In developed societies this quality at the core of human-ness has most often been

identified as worth or dignity. The ancient Romans believed that such worth or merit

deserves respect, and, therefore, just treatment. Blackstone (1765 et seq. in Golding,

1981) described ìthe absolute rights of manî endowed...with ìthe natural liberty of

mankindî. Kant viewed human beings as self-legislating moral agents.

The respect accorded to human status carries with it the privileges and protections

essential to maintaining personal integrity. It is these privileges and protections, which

have come to be called ìrightsî, i.e. they are unarguable, universal rather than unique,

and inalienable corollaries of being human. In sharp contrast to the familial, tribal and

other local loyalties of most human groups, international acceptance of a universal

concept of rights implies allegiance or loyalty to humankind as a whole, not divided by

national, ethnic, religious, gender or other socially constructed boundaries. This kind of

recognition is essential to any concept of world, in contrast to purely national, law.

Thomas Jefferson, even as he was a slave owner, wrote that all men, as equal products of

a Creator, have inalienable rights to life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness. However,

before and since Jefferson, communities have not been willing to grant everyone the

status of being fully human with its associated dignity and rights. This was not only true

for slaves. Strangers have been particularly vulnerable to being dehumanized, especially

353
in societies under stress. The same has been true for non-citizens, enemies, prisoners of

war (and of criminal justice systems who may lose their right to vote), members of

minority groups (including refugees and other migrants), women, children and mentally

impaired or psychotic individuals. In some contemporary societies women still do not

have the personal and political rights accorded to men. Even in the industrial

democracies, notably the United States, womenís reproductive rights or freedom to

manage their own fertility, i.e. to control their own bodies, is under intermittent

governmental attack. To the extent that ideological considerations have led the

government to withhold funding from international non-governmental organizations

concerned with womenís health in post-conflict and other settings, this constitutes an

assault on human rights with mental health consequences.

The Internationally Agreed-Upon Concept Of Rights

Within this assumptive framework two major categories of rights declarations have been

articulated by the United Nationsí1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights. While

both are intended as universal, each depends significantly upon the support of an intact

nation-state. If the attention and energies of the state are diverted by conflict it may

suspend its support for the civil rights of its citizens in the name of maintaining security.

The first category of rights offers protection to the integrity of individuals through

guarantees of personal freedoms. It emphasizes rights of personal self-determination,

freedom from domination by a single, impenetrable authority, and the inviolability of

oneís own body in the face of such threats as torture aimed at effecting a change of mind.

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It promotes a vision of a pluralistic civil society based on mutual tolerance and respect

for co-existing differing groups of people (variously defined) with differing views. With

diversity and free expression at its core it requires the protection of the nation-state of

which it is a part. Its freedom or civil rights are understood as ìnegativeî since they

depend on the absence of state coercion and political suppression as well as state

protection against such coercion by others.

The second major category of rights declarations recognizes and protects individual

worth and dignity through guarantees of socio-economic and cultural entitlements. These

are understood as ìpositiveî rights since they require the stateís active provision of the

conditions necessary to well-being. They include employment, medical and social

services, and access to the fruits of scientific research important to the attainment of

mental and physical health.

The Declarationís consideration of research led to a major twentieth century rights

development, termed ìbio-ethicsî, to deal with rapidly advancing biomedical technology

in such fields as artificial reproduction, organ transplantation and genetic manipulation.

This was formalized in UNESCOís formation of a bio-ethics committee. A major effort

was to develop international instruments to protect human rights in the face of

broadening possibilities for technical intervention into individual psychological and

physiological functioning (Brody, 1993).

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A significant obstacle to an operational rights standard regulating the behavior of

national governments toward their own citizens is the principle of national sovereignty.

This forbids human rights interventions by outside entities (states and non-governmental

organizations, i.e. NGOs) to protect citizens from collective abuse by their governments.

Such intervention is regarded as interference with the ìinternal affairsî of the nation in

question. This principle has become more porous with the passage of time, especially

with the rise of a definable world public opinion based on nearly universal news

coverage in mass media, but it remains a barrier.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF INTERNATIONAL RIGHTS AGREEMENTS

Inter-Governmental Accords

For at least a century governments have been aware of the need for human rights

protection under circumstances of conflict between sovereign states, even as they tried to

exclude outside influences on their internal affairs.

An early step was the 1894 Geneva Convention for victims of armed conflict which, by

giving neutral status to medical personnel, recognized the individual soldier as entitled to

ìat least a minimum of respect for his essence as a person....î (Forsythe, 1989, p. 7). This

convention was later revised to focus on prisoners of war. In 1926 The League of

Nations breached national sovereignty by influencing a large group of countries to adopt

a 1926 convention outlawing slavery. Finally adopted in the 1950s (Forsythe, 1989), it

continues to be transgressed in some countries.

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The first set of twentieth century international standards with human rights applications,

including the prohibition of child labor, was that produced by the International Labor

Organization (ILO) reviewed by Valticos (1998). A first Convention in 1930 prohibited

forced labor, particularly in the colonial territories. By 1957 forced labor was regarded as

a form of racial discrimination. Valticos noted that many labor-related rights, formulated

in individual terms, such as hours of work or social security, are meaningful only when

exercised in a collective manner.

The founding Charter of the United Nations adopted immediately after the end of World

War II in April 1945 stated that the UN would promote ìuniversal respect for and

observance of human rights.î Its Article 55 committed it to promoting ìhigher standards

of livingî including the remediation of ìsocial, health and related problemsî. In

November of that year the Preamble to the constitution of UNESCO (the UNís

Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) referred to denial of ìthe democratic

principles of the dignity, equality and mutual respect of men....î as a cause of war. In

1946 the UN appointed a Human Rights Commission. It met under the chairmanship of

Eleanor Roosevelt from January 27 to February 10, 1947 to draft an ìinternational bill of

rightsî (Glendon, 2001). Meanwhile, in 1948, the UN passed a Genocide Convention,

which forbade ìacts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national,

ethnical, racial or religious groupî.

On 21 August 1948 the first international mental health NGO, the World Federation for

Mental Health, proclaimed its founding document, Mental Health and World Citizenship.

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It called for ìan informed, reflective, responsible allegiance to mankind as a whole...a

world community built on free consent and respect for individual and cultural

differencesí and concluded that ìthe ultimate goal of mental health is to help [people]

live with their fellows in one world.î

On 10 December 1948, still in the brief window of hope and optimism between the end

of World War II and the onset of the Cold War, the UN General Assembly approved the

Universal Declaration of Human Rights submitted by Eleanor Rooseveltís Commission.

Its assertion of the ìinherent dignity...and equal and inalienable rights of all members of

the human familyî reflected the values of the industrial democracies. Although it was

presented as a non-binding set of universally applicable guidelines, it had to overcome

the reservations of several totalitarian states of the period. This was especially true for its

Article 18 assuring the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion, including

the right to change oneís religious beliefs. Some states asserted that it represented an

inappropriate imposition of Western and Judeo-Christian values upon non-Western

cultures, indeed, a form of cultural imperialism. The ìWesternî states were mainly the

industrial democracies. The others were, in the main, less developed and more

authoritarian. At particular issue was the matter of individual expressive-political

freedom versus collective well-being requiring communal order and the fulfillment of

individual needs for food, shelter and work. Authoritarian governments asserted that the

individual autonomy viewed as a ìrightî by ìWesternî governments was incompatible

with the value of supporting the community and extended family. In this view

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community welfare should take precedence over that of individuals. In the opposing

view, community welfare flows from that of free individuals.

Key precipitants for the declarations protecting personal freedoms were the Nazi

atrocities of the 1930s and 1940s predicated on the belief that certain categories of

people were less than human, and, in terms of Nazi doctrine, not worthy of life. Life

unworthy of life, and, therefore, ineligible for rights associated with being human, was

defined on bases fitting the beliefs of the most powerful and socially dominant group:

racial, ethnic, religious, health and developmental, and, while not specified, inevitably

political. Although the Declaration has not been adequately followed it has provided a

set of principles, which have served as standards for inter-group discourse, including that

between nations. The freedoms, i.e. principles of civil liberties, for example, have served

as reference points for dealing with perpetrators and survivors of gross violations of

personal integrity suffered during periods of political violence, as in South Africa

(Zungu-Dirwayi et al, 2004).

Childrenís health rights were included in a 1959 UN Declaration of the Rights of the

Child, elaborated in a November 20, 1989 Convention. In 1966 the Declarationís

freedoms or negative rights, embodied in a Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, and

the entitlements or positive rights, embodied in a Covenant on Social, Cultural and

Economic Rights, were adopted as treaties by the UN. The freedom to be self-

determining was associated with the freedom from torture and ìcruel, inhuman or

degrading treatmentî (Article 5 of the Declaration) and linked to rights to an inviolate

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personality, and freedom of speech and expression. It included a reference to the

importance of education for the ìfree and full development of ...personalityî within oneís

community. Womenís health rights, including that to plan a family, were elaborated in

the 1967 General Assembly Declaration on the Elimination of Discrimination Against

Women with more specific recommendations in later declarations. Authoritarian

governments, sometimes while publicly embracing many of the civil liberties principles,

have continued to regard them as threatening their established orders.

Social entitlements, especially those to ìmedical care and the necessary social servicesî

have been viewed by United States authorities less as rights than as privileges, requiring

the assumption of relevant responsibilities. They have been more emphatically espoused

by socialist and welfare-oriented countries, such as the former USSR, in part as a

counterweight to accusations that they had violated their populationsí civil rights.

Article 3, guaranteeing that ìeveryone has the right to life, liberty and security of

personî, especially the idea of a right to security, has only begun to attract significant

attention since the rise of international terrorism.

In 1985 the UN General Assembly passed a Declaration of Basic Principles of Justice for

Victims of Crime and Abuse of Power. While its advocates viewed it as a possible

opening for external intervention in case of a governmentís collective abuse of its

citizens, its main significance was to articulate the importance of mental health

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impairment in consequence of governmental victimization and the need, under these

circumstances, for reparative mental health services.

MENTAL HEALTH AND HUMAN RIGHTS CHALLENGES OF RECOVERING

POST-CONFLICT SOCIETIES

Contextual Change

Most aspects of life in post-conflict societies have the potential to threaten both the

freedoms and entitlements, and thus the psychological security, of individuals, families

and sub-communities. The post-conflict context is characterized by radically changed

and diminished structures of opportunity for freely chosen political expression, religious

observance, and informed decision making, as well as lost opportunity for employment,

education, health care and other services which offer both actual care and possibilities for

coping. The currently reigning authority can interpret the societyís right to security as so

all-encompassing that it overwhelms individual and community freedoms. In vulnerable

individuals, including those traumatized by earlier conflict, as well as those whose self-

protective mechanisms have been eroded by age and illness, loss of privacy rights can

lead to defensive coping which proceeds to maladaptive anxiety and paranoid thinking.

When those suspected of being enemies of the new order are apprehended, the right of

judicial review may be withheld by the authorities. The mental health consequences of

prolonged incarceration and isolation from friends, family and legal representation in the

name of societal security can be devastating.

In a setting in which stable work- places and long time employees have been replaced by

large numbers of refugees and migrant workers, their treatment by controlling authorities

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can become an issue. It is a human rights issue insofar as it reflects discrimination

against minorities as well as deprivation of the right to employment and all of its

corollary benefits. It is a mental health issue insofar as it contributes to demoralization

and depression.

Where customary ethical norms have been destroyed or diminished in effectiveness due

to prolonged conflict and residual hatreds certain previously condemned behaviors may

persist. Examples are arbitrary arrests, discrimination on ethnic grounds, and the

continuing use of children as combat troops. These concerns are most prominent in

societies where conflict between tribal-ethnic-religious groups has been central to the

persisting trauma. In these instances the achievement of a national identity while

preserving cultural diversity presents a major challenge with human rights implications.

The status of women is an indicator of the prevalence of civil freedoms in most societies.

In certain traditional societies chronic violations of their freedoms and autonomy are

most egregious in the case of so-called ìhonor killingsî by male relatives when womenís

sexual behavior is deemed to have dishonored the family. Although post-conflict settings

offer the possibility of escape from traditional restrictions, liberated behavior may place

the woman at risk. Less extreme is the subtle encouragement of domestic violence under

the guise of promoting strong families, as in contemporary Uzbekistan, through

reinforcing the dominance of aggressive husbands. One approach to these issues is

through empowerment of women by small grants permitting their entrepreneurial

money-making activity.

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Human Rights and Impaired Mental Health

In stable industrial democracies, the most obvious human rights issues for people with

diagnosed mental illness concern their coerced incarceration and ìtreatmentî. Some

totalitarian states, in an effort to maintain internal order, have tried to divest political

dissidents of responsibility by labeling their views as symptomatic of illness,

legitimating forced hospitalization and the administration of mind-altering drugs.

The unresolved challenge in stable or post-conflict settings is how to foster individual

dignity and freedom and the patientís rights to autonomy while at the same time

espousing communal well-being and preserving the social fabric. Some leaders of

patients-rights movements have identified mental health as a human rights rather than a

medical issue. That is, it is more effectively maintained by protecting personal dignity

and the capacity for self-determination than by providing ìtreatmentî for behavioral

deviation classified as illness. Physicians, on the other hand, aware of the need to protect

the patient and society, regard such an approach as medical abandonment.

In 1989 the World Federation for Mental Health issued a Declaration of Human Rights

and Mental Health which made it clear that the fundamental rights of people defined as

mentally ill shall be the same as those of all other citizens and that they have the right to

be treated under the same standards of competent, humane and technically adequate care

as other ill persons (Brody, 1998). The differential availability of clinical care for

victims of violence, based on their identification as members of discriminated against

groups, constitutes a clear rights violation. Lack of adequate personnel and facilities for

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the identification and treatment of diagnosable mental illness can be viewed as a human

rights violation. Even after changes of regime victims may not seek care because of

continuing fear of retribution, concerns about privacy, fears of unsympathetic clinicians

who may have belonged to a former oppressive regime, and wishes not to re-experience

trauma. Interpretations of whether or not violations exist can become especially complex

when therapist and patient belong to traditionally opposing, mutually feared or hated

groups. This was obvious in the interaction between Israeli and Palestinian clinicians and

patients in the mid-1980s (Brody, personal observation).

Repeated psychosocial trauma, including the loss of important relationships and familiar

and reliable interpersonal support systems, can produce sequelae in vulnerable

individuals which fit the criteria of mental illness. Along with physical trauma they

contribute to undiagnosed psychological incapacity and loss of economic and

interpersonal capacities. There is increasing documentation of the nature of the stressors.

Recent data from Rwanda, for example (Republique du Rwanda, 2003), with a high post-

conflict prevalence of orphans, suggest the nature of traumas experienced by children, 95

percent of whom were subjected to violence, including 88 percent who had expected to

die from machete attacks. More than half and up to three-quarters had participated in

massacres, seen corpses, and been threatened directly with death.

Zungu-Dirwayi et al (2004), reviewing the literature and reporting their own data from

South Africa, note that particularly high rates of psychiatric disorder have been found

among survivors of gross human rights abuses. The apartheid era in South Africa was

characterized by frequent collusion between the health care sector and the state. Injured

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political activists were reported to police, were subject to withheld treatment and doctors,

themselves, were sometimes involved in torture: ìIt is clear that fear and distrust of state

health services continues to the present day despite the demise of the apartheid regimeî.

In South Africa many anti-apartheid clinical groups would not allow people to work with

them ìwho were not part of the struggleî (Brody, 1996). Examples of trauma centers

operated by politically sensitive staff include several established in the Republicís

transition from a segregated police state to what was called a ìgovernment of national

unityî or as some put it, from ìa culture of apartheidî to ìa culture of human rightsî

(Brody, 1996). Three such centers were The Centre for the Study of Violence and

Reconciliation in Johannesburg, the Trauma Centre for Victims of Violence in

Capetown, and the Child Guidance Clinic of the Clinical Psychology Department of the

University of Capetown. All were involved in varying degree and focus with training

staff members and others to be socially sensitive advocates as well as clinicians. When

possible police and related personnel were among those receiving training. Visits to these

centers made it clear that violations of rights to political freedoms and to freedom from

intrusions into oneís physical body, as in cases of torture, could not be separated from

deprivations of social, economic and cultural entitlements including education, housing

and health.

The Johannesburg Center, in addition to providing social support groups for people who

had been imprisoned and tortured, and for relatives of those who had disappeared, was

concerned with the prevalent domestic violence of the region, rape and gender

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sensitization. Their police training focused prominently on gender sensitization and in

some instances on their former roles both as perpetrators and victims of violence. Center

staff did not regard their clients as psychiatrically ill, but as ìemotionally challengedî.

The Capetown Trauma Center included among its long-term goals ìempowering

communities to deal with the aftermath of violenceî. Its philosophy was inspirational

described in terms of ìthe image of a young tree growing out of broken prison bars...to

assist people in turning painful experiences into opportunities for growth and a new life.î

This center operated five special projects, all concerned with the turbulent and unsettled

nature of the post-conflict society. The ìurban violenceî project, at a health center in a

black township, dealt with teachers and children in schools, victims of street fights, gang

fights, community conflict and ìtaxi warsî between minivan operators seeking

monopolies. The ìrural violenceî project dealt mainly with problems of unpaid farm

workers still flogged and treated as chattels by landowners in isolated areas, and beaten

and starved by local police. These workers, because of their past history, tended to be

passive in the face of landowners fighting legislation designed to protect their rights. The

ìrefugee and returned exile projectî dealt mainly with adolescents and young adults

emphasizing education and counseling with a focus on self-esteem, identity formation,

and skills for developing friendships, resolving conflicts and leadership. The ìtorture and

captivityî project paid particular attention to children who had been prisoners. The final

project, ìtrainingî, aimed at both professionals and lay people, to build a core group of

support-givers and counselors. They were helped by a volunteer network of physicians,

nurses and pastoral counselors, all involved in human rights advocacy campaigns,

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especially to reduce police violence and promote reconciliation between previously

hostile factions of society.

The Child Guidance Clinic became politically active in 1985 when it began to work with

child victims of the security forces. Later, however, ìwith a closer look we realized that

the problem wasnít just violence. It was years and years of inadequate education,

housing, social structure...our role is to come in and help the teachers work in what is on

the surface a completely unworkable situation.î Graduate students, thus, were selected

on ìthe basis of their commitment to deal with community problems, and the focus is on

advocacy and sensitivity to issues of society, culture and racism.î

Conventional psychiatric and mental health centers in South Africa also demonstrated

their capacity as loci of human rights advocacy. The Community Mental Health Centre

of the Cape Mental Health Society, for example, supported school programs for teachers

and preschoolers focused on ëanti-biasî and ìanti-racismî work. While in 1996 the

passing of apartheid had not had a major effect on the material lives of these

disadvantaged people ìit touchesî, according to the Society leaders on their ìdignity and

self-esteemî. Lack of security, however, was a problem. In order to make social workers

available to as many people as possible they were posted in community venues. Several

of their vans had been high jacked from these localities.

Primary health care settings have been suggested as non-threatening sites for treatment

and research in this area, with the proviso that staff members be given special training to

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deal with such victims (Zungu-Dirwayi, 2004). The primary health care facility offers

many advantages for those whose symptoms are primarily somatic in nature, as well as

former victims seeking relative anonymity.

THE INTERRELATIONSHIP OF CIVIL AND ECONOMIC RIGHTS

Farmer (2003) makes a compelling case for the proposition that civil rights cannot be

effectively defended if social and economic rights are not. He describes ìa host of

offenses against human dignityî (p. 8) in poor nations such as Haiti in the aftermath of

prolonged civil conflict. These include prevailing AIDS, drug-resistant tuberculosis, the

suffering and social impairments associated with pervasive and chronic ill-health, and

the growing inequities of social advantage and health within as well as between societies.

Central are inequities in accessible rights to food, shelter and health basic to simple

survival. Those most routinely subject to these un-remarked human rights violations are

the destitute poor marginalized as ìundeservingî by the middle class of their stabilizing

societies. They include, among others, drug addicts, sex workers, illegal non-citizens,

welfare recipients and the homeless. Farmer also draws attention to the ways in which

the national and international policies of corporations, governments and UN associated

agencies (e.g. regarding trade, market-based medical care, lending and financial support,

embargoes, apparent racial preferences in refugee acceptance) impinge on the lives and

welfare of the destitute poor of many countries. He argues that the rights violations

which characterize societies are not random, but are symptoms of deeper pathologies of

power, involving the creation and management of institutional structures, determining

who will suffer and who will be protected. Exclusion from the mainstream culture, from

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opportunities for health care, jobs, housing, and education, are conceived as violent

consequences of global structural forces determining the survival rights of vast numbers

of people in all of the worldís regions. His key organizing concept of ìstructural

violenceî, is borrowed from Johan Galtung (1969).

SOCIAL RECONCILIATION

The reconciliation of the citizenry with former state-based oppressors, as well as the

coming to terms of formerly hostile factions, are essential to the political and human

rights rehabilitation of post-conflict societies. This reconciliation provides a context for

diminished fear, anxiety and depressive preoccupations, as well as anger and a wish for

revenge, in the post-conflict society. A secure, non-hostile context promotes the

emotional security of its inhabitants. However, mutual trust cannot be rapidly restored

after brutal conflict with still-fresh memories. Further, intergroup harmony has not

always existed prior to the immediately preceding conflict. Under these circumstances

mutual acceptance of the adversaryís right to exist, that is an increase in tolerance, is an

achievement in itself.

The best-known institution developed to promote this process was South Africaís Truth

and Reconciliation Commission established on 15 December 1995 and headed by Nobel

Peace Prize winner, Archbishop Desmond Tutu. It was important to the many

traumatized individuals who were ready to forgive if they could know ìwho and what to

forgiveî (Brody, 1996). Perpetrators of the earlier brutalities could apply for an amnesty

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hearing, with a full, ìnot coercedî, disclosure, proving that their acts were politically

motivated. The cut-off date for amnesty applications was 16 December 1996. Even

toward the end of its tenure, however, since the Commission represented a compromise

between the security forcesí effort to legislate a general amnesty and others wishing

revenge and reparations, it remained controversial.. Truth commissions with variable

outcomes have taken place in Argentina, El Salvador, Nicaragua and Haiti. The outcome

of their efforts, in the absence of an emerging charismatic leader such as Nelson

Mandela, has not been regarded as generally successful.

USAIDís Center for Development Information and Evaluation (CDIE) has undertaken

three case studies of social reconciliation activities (Kumar, 1999). One was of peace

committees in South Africa in pursuance of the National Peace Accords signed in

September 1991 to prevent violence and promote peace. A second study assessed the

impact of collaboration between Israeli and Arab scientists on relationships conducive to

peace. The third study examined the role of peace media in promoting inter-ethnic

reconciliation in Bosnia and Herzegovina, and the effects of economic development

initiatives in fostering ethnic tolerance. All data in these three studies were qualitative in

nature, derived from in-depth interviews, document reviews and field observation.

These and similar studies report modest, temporary improvements in the desired

direction between small segments of the societies in question, e.g. the collaborating

scientists, business people, or journalists, themselves. Certain intervening objectives

were significant steps in the direction of reconciliation. These included: facilitating

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communication between parties; establishing reciprocal dialogue with acknowledgments

of the past aimed at reducing anger, prejudice and misunderstandings (and, although the

term was not used, achieving mutual forgiveness); establishing positive relationships

through cooperative activities. Opening channels of communication between antagonists

was a particularly important first step. An important secondary objective of collaborative

activities has been promoting development in such areas as agriculture, trade, and small-

scale industry. A sense of shared economic interest appears to often transcend ethnic

considerations.

Most of these steps have been identified in earlier attempts at reconciliation, such as joint

meetings between Israeli and Palestinian psychiatrists which took place over several

years without a systematic record. Dialogue has been promoted through problem solving

workshops between influential persons and community leaders on both sides. It seems

especially important to bring to light the human rights violations experienced on both

sides. Ethnic reconciliation commissions have been established n Poland, Bulgaria, and

the Czech Republic. The same might be said for efforts to establish peace committees

and commissions and peace research and training organizations in general. An example

of the former is the Human Rights Chamber of Bosnia-Herzegovina (Newton, 2004) to

which appeals can be made by parties who consider themselves victims of violations.

Conflict management training has usually been undertaken by academic institutions and

NGOs.

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Media experiments, some supported by USAID, have been tried in various parts of the

world. Peace radios, established in Burundi, Rwanda and Somalia have helped correct

extremist propaganda (Kumar, 1999). Efforts at training journalists for unbiased news

reporting have not been regarded as successful.

SUMMARY

Despite the designation, ìpost-conflictî, societies traumatized by recent civil wars and

comparable disturbances remain vulnerable to human rights violations. These include

both violations of freedoms, i.e. civil liberties including cruel and unusual punishments,

and of entitlements or social supports, i.e. accessibility to survival needs including food,

shelter, medical care and employment. Freedoms and entitlements are presented by the

1948 United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights as accorded to all humans

by virtue of their inherent worth or dignity as self-reflective beings deserving of respect.

The respect accorded to human status carries with it the privileges and protections

essential to maintaining personal integrity which have come to be called ìrightsî.

Originally enshrined in the 1948 United Nations Declaration they were given treaty form

in the succeeding Covenants of 1966.

Prominent among the elements contributing to the possibility of human rights violations

in post-conflict societies is persisting antagonism between the original adversaries and

hostility between adherents and opponents of the new post-conflict order. Prolonged

periods of societal disarray, often involving these adversaries as well as common

criminals, may call for authoritarian methods to restore order. Under such circumstances

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attempts to ensure security may threaten civil liberties. Punitive actions, ostensibly aimed

at maintaining security by currently reigning authority, may involve the dehumanization

of prisoners as well as strangers and members of minority groups. Detained as possible

enemies of the new order, their right of judicial review may be withheld. Where the

effectiveness of customary ethical norms has been diminished and residual hatreds

persist previously condemned behaviors may continue, e.g. ethnic discrimination and

arbitrary arrests. While nominal efforts are made to improve the status of women in

traditionally patriarchal societies, newly liberated behavior may place them at risk. In all

of these instances the verification of conformity to human rights standards by

international observers can be impeded by rigid adherence to the principle of national

sovereignty.

A factor leading to apparent rights violations may be a lack of material resources

requiring stringent conservation methods. This may make it impossible to supply the

social entitlements promised in the Universal Declaration. Those who suffer most are

marginalized groups, stigmatized as ìundeservingî even in stable societies: the destitute

poor including addicts, sex workers, illegal non-citizens and the homeless. After

prolonged civil conflict they may include people with AIDS, drug-resistant tuberculosis,

and other chronic illnesses for which care is not available. In conditions of scarcity, UN

declarations permit entitlements to be regarded as valid claims pending improved

economic circumstances. However, material scarcity is not a reason to suspend civil

liberties.

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In the aftermath of conflict people must confront the loss of familiar structures of

opportunity, not only for free civil expression, but for employment, education, health

care and services which offer both actual support and possibilities for coping. Restitution

of the social structure is essential to the ultimate protection of civil liberties as well as

social supports. However, restoration of such opportunities may be incomplete and the

effort prolonged and complicated by large numbers of refugees and migrant workers.

Post-conflict settings tend to have higher proportions of psychologically disturbed

individuals than encountered in more stable settings. The unresolved challenge in all

settings is how to foster individual dignity and freedom and the patientís rights to

autonomy while at the same time protecting communal well-being and the social fabric.

The 1989 World Federation for Mental Healthís Declaration of Human Rights and

Mental Health made it clear that the fundamental rights of people defined as mentally ill

shall be the same as those of all other citizens and that they have the right to be treated

under the same standards of competent, humane and technically adequate care as other ill

persons. Human rights violations can include the differential availability of rehabilitative

care for victims of violence based on their identification as members of discriminated-

against groups, and the failure of distressed persons to seek help because of continuing

fears of retribution, concerns about privacy, and fears of unsympathetic health workers

who belonged to a former oppressive regime.

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RECOMMENDATIONS

International

Issues Relating to National Sovereignty

In 1985 the UN General Assembly passed a Declaration of Basic Principles of Justice for

Victims of Crime and Abuse of Power. Its main significance was to articulate the

importance of mental health impairment in consequence of governmental victimization

and the need, under these circumstances, for reparative mental health services. It is

recommended that conference participants consider the potential for building upon this

Declaration already passed by the UN General Assembly. The possibilities for external,

humanitarian intervention to limit governmental abuse of its citizens and care for its

victims, inherent in this Declaration should be explored with the aim of developing a

ìfree accessî alliance of participating governments and NGOs capable of crossing

national boundaries to achieve this goal. This might be conceptualized as a linking of

health ministries permitting the exchange of information, equipment and personnel. It

could begin with the ìtwinningî of two ministries and the eventual coalescence of others

or of pairs of twins.

National

The keys to human rights promotion and protection in post-conflict civil societies may be

summarized in terms of reconciliation (between former and newly activated adversaries),

restitution or restoration (of social structures and capacity for social support), and

rehabilitation (of victims of human rights violations).

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RECONCILIATION

Achieving some level of reconciliation between former antagonists is essential to the

human rights rehabilitation of a society.

(a) Consider developing a national institution analogous to South Africaís Truth

and Reconciliation Commission and local groups based on South Africaís Peace

Committees.

(b) Foster collaboration between scientific, clinical or economic development

groups formerly affiliated with opposing antagonists.

(c) Explore ways of facilitating dialogue between parties, including influential

persons and community leaders.

(d) Explore the possible role of conflict management training.

(e) Explore the role of media in perpetuating and/or reducing conflict and tension.

RESEARCH AND THE QUESTION OF SOCIAL JUSTICE

A number of studies indicate that PTSD and a variety of anxiety disorders are prominent

in displaced populations as well as those in post-conflict situations. Informal evidence

suggests that when most of a population at risk believes that former oppressors have been

brought to justice they may experience a decrease in feelings of anxiety and sensitive

wariness about eminent danger from others and from authorities in general. However, this

issue has not been systematically studied. Among the related concerns are feelings of

concern of former victims and their relatives about confronting perpetrators who have

been released in consequence of reconciliation activities. The number of confounding

variables and inability to use control groups in naturalistic settings of this kind suggest

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the difficulties in designing research in these areas. Another complication might be the

inability of an investigator to be ethically neutral, especially when dealing with former

perpetrators.

RESTITUTION AND RESTORATION

The key element to the restoration of civil society with adequate human rights protection

is the unwavering commitment of national leaders to this goal. Legislative and judicial

initiatives aimed at protecting the rights of minorities and other vulnerable groups may be

necessary. The same is true for protecting the rights of women whose chattel status can

be taken for granted in authoritarian patriarchal governments.

At lower levels of government crucial elements of restoration of civil society are training

and education. Special attention must be paid to general education, specific training in

human rights for all students as well as law enforcement and judiciary agencies, and to

the fiduciary and advocacy roles of health care professionals. A particularly sensitive

issue will be preventing the dissemination of hate messages while maintaining the

freedom of the press and other media

Economic recovery, addressed in other chapters, is essential to restoration of civil society

and the availability of work, health care and education

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SECURITY PERSONNEL TRAINING

As noted above training police and other security personnel in human relations is

essential to the ultimate maintenance of human rights.

REHABILITATION OF TRAUMATIZED PERSONS

1. Primary Health Care Centers

Train the personnel of such centers to deal with victims of human rights violations.

Especially, the importance is the development of their advocacy and fiduciary roles as

essential complements to their clinical skills.

2. Trauma Centers

These, following the South African model, are conceived as operating in parallel fashion

to the primary health care centers for clients who are less concerned about privacy and

less fearful of retribution. Their goals would include providing social support groups not

only for victims and families, but for perpetrators, and police. Police training in human

relations is essential.

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FIGURE I

Reconciliation Civil Liberties

CONFLICT Restitution HUMAN RIGHTS CIVIL SOCIETY

Rehabilitation Social Entitlements

379
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