Federated States of Micronesia

Department of Resources &

Development

AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION MANUAL

FOR EXTENSION WORKERS
AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION MANUAL
FOR EXTENSION WORKERS

Compiled by
Sayed Mohammad Naim Khalid
and
Shukrullah Sherzad

This manual is produced under FAO funded project - TCP/MIC/3601 “Strengthening the capacity of Farmers
Associations to increase production and marketing of root crops, fruits and vegetables in FSM”

Sub Regional Office for the Pacific (SAP)

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)
Apia, 2019
Required citation:

FAO. 2019. Agricultural Extension Manual, by Khalid, S.M.N. & Sherzad, S. (eds). Apia.

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Contents

Preface .................................................................................................................................................... v
Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................................... vi
Chapter 1: Basic concepts of agricultural extension ............................................................................. 1
1. 1. Why extension is important? ...................................................................................................... 1
1.2. What is the meaning of extension? ............................................................................................. 1
1.3. What is the objective of extension? ............................................................................................ 1
1.4. Principles of extension ................................................................................................................. 1
1.5. Who is an extension agent? ......................................................................................................... 1
1.6. What are the functions of an extension agent? .......................................................................... 2
1.7. Knowledge extension workers must have: .................................................................................. 2
1.8. Necessary personal skills for extension workers ......................................................................... 2
1.9. Key personal qualities for extension workers .............................................................................. 2
1.10. Who are the target of agricultural extension workers? ............................................................ 2
1.11. What are basics on adult learning?............................................................................................ 2
Chapter 2: Agriculture extension planning and M&E ........................................................................... 3
2.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 3
2.2. Explain Events Planned in Advance? ............................................................................................ 3
2.3. What are Follow-up Events? ........................................................................................................ 3
2.4. What steps are needed to prepare an annual plan? ................................................................... 4
2.5. Implementation and monitoring ................................................................................................. 4
2.6. Evaluating last year extension program....................................................................................... 5
2.8. Developing estimated budgets .................................................................................................... 5
2.9. Preparing Annual Reports ............................................................................................................ 5
Chapter 3: Communication for extension ............................................................................................. 6
3.1. What is Communication? ............................................................................................................. 6
3.2. How communication for extension happens? ............................................................................. 6
3.4. Extension communication system ............................................................................................... 6
3.5. Why is listening important for extension workers? ..................................................................... 7
3.6. What is importance of Feedback in agricultural communication? .............................................. 7
3.7. What is mass media? ................................................................................................................... 7
3.8. What are types of mass media?................................................................................................... 7
3.9. Why mass media is important for extension? ............................................................................. 7
3.10. What are some tools of mass media used for extension? ......................................................... 7
Chapter 4: Methods of extension .......................................................................................................... 9
4.1. What are key extension methods? .............................................................................................. 9
4.2. What are individual methods? ..................................................................................................... 9
4.2.1. Farm Visit .............................................................................................................................. 9
4.2.2. Office calls ............................................................................................................................. 9
4.2.3. Letters ................................................................................................................................... 9
4.3. What are group methods of extension? .................................................................................... 10
4.3.1. Group meetings .................................................................................................................. 10
4.3.2. Demonstrations .................................................................................................................. 10
4.3.3. FIELD DAYS .......................................................................................................................... 11
4.3.4. Methods demonstration ..................................................................................................... 12
4.3.5. District/Island agricultural fairs........................................................................................... 12
4.3.6. Farm walks .......................................................................................................................... 12
4.3.7. Farmers rallies ..................................................................................................................... 12
4.3.8. Folk media ........................................................................................................................... 13
4.3.9. Group meetings .................................................................................................................. 13

iii
 4.3.10. Motivational tours ............................................................................................................ 13
4.3.11. Participatory technology development ............................................................................ 13
4.3.12. Formal training days ......................................................................................................... 14
4.3.13. Farmer field schools .......................................................................................................... 14
4.4. Mass extension .......................................................................................................................... 14
4.4.1. Village meetings .................................................................................................................. 14
4.4.2. Field days ............................................................................................................................ 15
4.4.3. Extension campaigns........................................................................................................... 15
Annex 1: Practical tools for the extension workers ............................................................................ 16
Tool 1: Guidelines for Successful meetings/workshops ................................................................... 16
Tool 2: Guidelines for resource mapping .......................................................................................... 17
Tool 3: Guidelines for farmers’ training/group discussions .............................................................. 18
Tool 4: Guidelines for cross-visits ..................................................................................................... 19
Tool 5: Criteria for selecting ‘pilot farmers’ ...................................................................................... 19
Tool 6: Guidelines for farm and home visit....................................................................................... 21
Tool 7: Guidelines for results demonstration ................................................................................... 22
Tool 8: Guidelines for method demonstration ................................................................................. 24
Tool 9: Guidelines for group meetings.............................................................................................. 25
Tool 10: Guidelines for small group training..................................................................................... 26
Tool 11: Guidelines for a field day or farmers’ day........................................................................... 27
Tool 12: Guidelines for Farmers Field School (FFS)........................................................................... 29
Tool 13: Sample job description of agricultural extension (AE) workers .......................................... 31
Tool 14: Developing an agricultural extension program (an example) ............................................ 32
Tool 15: Extension officer’s annual report (an example).................................................................. 33
References and further information.................................................................................................... 34

Figures
Figure 1: Example of poster (prepared for Samoa under FAO funded project for extension purposes) ............... 8
Figure 2: Farm visit organized under FAO funded project in the Solomon Islands ................................................ 9
Figure 3: Demonstration plot – using keyhole garden concept (funded under FAO project in Samoa) .............. 11
Figure 4: Vanilla farm in the Cook Islands – which could be also used for the extension purposes .................... 15

iv
Preface

In the context of sustainable agricultural development, agricultural extension has a very crucial role to play.
The tasks and responsibilities of extension service will need to be broadbased and holistic in contents and
scope, thus beyond agricultural technology transfer. Its normal task of transferring and disseminating to
farmers appropriate agricultural technologies and good farm practices would not be sufficient.

Extension agencies, services, and workers will need to exercise a more proactive and participatory role and
serve as knowledge/information "brokers", initiating and facilitating mutually meaningful and equitable
knowledge-based transactions among agricultural researchers, trainers, and primary producers.

To improve its cost-effectiveness, proper strategies to advocate favorable and explicit agricultural extension
policies are needed. Modern strategic planning and quality management tools and approaches should be
utilized in developing or restructuring extension organizations or institutions.

More innovative methods must be developed to identify systematically farmer’s problems and felt needs, and
to help formulate and set agricultural research agenda based on such needs and problems. In short, there is a
need to develop and improve the conceptual, technical, and operational methods and tools in order to
strategically plan, efficiently manage, and scientifically evaluate a problem-solving, demand-driven and needs-
based agricultural extension programs.

This manual is a practical guide for extension workers in agriculture. It contains simple, easy to follow tools on
the commonly used extension methods and an outline of how extension may be planned and implemented.
Most of sources of each subjected listed in the further reading section at the end of the manual. Those
interested in reading more should find most of the references reasonably accessible.

Not everyone will agree with all the points made in this manual regarding extension methods, but we hope the
opinions given will help stimulate debate among extension workers.

v
Acknowledgements

The following individual contributed to conceptualization, writing, reviewing, editing, and improving technical
accuracy of this manual. Their valuable contributions are hereby gratefully acknowledged.

 Mr. Adelino Lorens - Chief of Agriculture Pohnpei, FSM

 Ms. Marlyter Silbanuz – National Project Coordinator, FSM
 Mr. Tamdad Sulag – Chief of Agriculture Yap, FSM
 Dr. Nacanieli (Nat) Tuivavalagi – Agronomy Researcher, College of Micronesia, FSM
 Mr. Konrad Englberger – Volunteer Plant Protection Expert, FSM
 Mr. Jackson Phillip – Program Coordinator, College of Micronesia FSM
 Mr. Sawdey, Sharon – Resource Conservationist, NRCS/USDA - FSM
 Dr. Leon Numaco – Horticulture Consultant, FAO
 Mr. Gumercindo Tumbali – Farm Management & Marketing Consultant, FAO
 Mr. Kadalino Lorens - Director of Pohnpei Economic Affairs, FSM
 Mr. Santos, Gibson – Soil Conservation Technician, NRCS/USDA, FSM
 Mr. Nicholson Solomon – Director, Department of Resources & Development, Pohnpei, FSM

vi
Chapter 1: Basic concepts of agricultural extension
1. 1. Why extension is important?
Extension is essentially the means by which new knowledge and ideas are introduced into rural areas in order
to bring about change and improve the lives of farmers and their families. Extension, therefore, is of critical
importance. Without agricultural extension, farmers would lack access to the support and services required to
improve their agriculture and other productive activities. The critical importance of extension can be
understood better if its three main elements are considered:

Knowledge  Communication  Farm Family

1.2. What is the meaning of extension?

Extension is an informal educational process directed toward the rural population. This process offers advice
and information to help them solve their problems. Extension also aims to increase the efficiency of the family
farm, increase production and generally increase the standard of living of the farm family.

1.3. What is the objective of extension?

The objective of extension is to change farmers' outlook toward their difficulties. Extension is concerned not
just with physical and economic achievements but also with the development of the rural people themselves.
Extension agents, therefore, discuss matters with the rural people; help them to gain a clearer insight into
their problems and to decide how to overcome these problems.

1.4. Principles of extension

 Extension works with people, not for them
 Extension is accountable to its clients
 Extension is a two-way link
 Extension works with different target groups
 Extension cooperates with other rural development organizations
 Equitable Services delivery to farmers
 Efficient/Effective Services Delivery
 Decentralization, Local Decision Making
 Demand Led Extension Services
 Working primarily with Farmers Groups
 Strong Extension Research Linkage
 Capacitating Extension Personnel
 Appropriate Extension Methodology
 Integrated Extension Support Services
 Coordinated Agric. Extension Services
 Improved Environmental Support

1.5. Who is an extension agent?

The whole extension process is dependent upon the extension agent, who is the critical element in all
extension activities. If the extension agent is not able to respond to a given situation and function effectively, it
does not matter how imaginative the extension approach is or how impressive is the supply of inputs and
resources for extension work. Indeed, the effectiveness of the extension agent can often determine the
success or failure of an extension program. The extension agent has to work with people in a variety of
different ways. It is often an intimate relationship and one, which demands much tact and resourcefulness.
The agent inevitably works with people whose circumstances are different from his own. He is an educated,
trained professional working with farmers, many of whom have little formal education and lead a way of life,
which may be quite different from his.

1
1.6. What are the functions of an extension agent?
 Assist farmers to identify and overcome problems
 Assist farmers to make better use of resources/technology
 Introduce new technologies (new varieties, crops, breeds, etc.)
 Provide information on new promising research results
 Create opportunities for farmers (processing, marketing, etc.)
 Help farmers to put new information into use/apply it
 Assist farmers to get a clear vision of their development

1.7. Knowledge extension workers must have:

Four main areas of knowledge are important for the extension agent and form the basis of extension training.

 Technical
 Rural life
 Policy
 Adult education
 Cultural knowledge, etiquette & language
 Religious protocols

1.8. Necessary personal skills for extension workers

 Organization and planning
 Communication
 Analysis and diagnosis
 Leadership
 Initiative
 Public speaking
 Report writing

1.9. Key personal qualities for extension workers

 Commitment to extension work
 Reliability
 Humility in his work with the farmers
 Confidence in his own abilities and determination to achieve something

1.10. Who are the target of agricultural extension workers?

Adult farmers including men and women. However, communities members including children can also be
included in the trainings to increase their interest in agriculture.

1.11. What are basics on adult learning?

Target groups of agricultural extension are female and male farmers in the age of 15 to 65. Compared to
children and teens, adults have special needs and requirements as learners. Adult learners can be described by
the following characteristics with the following obvious consequences for Agricultural Extension:

 Adults are autonomous and self-directed

 Adults have accumulated a foundation of life experiences and knowledge
 Adults are goal-oriented
 Adults are relevancy-oriented
 Adults are practical,
 As do all learners, adults need to be shown respect

2
Chapter 2: Agriculture extension planning and M&E
2.1. Introduction
Proper Planning and Monitoring & Evaluation of extension activities, outputs and impacts are key for the
success of extension programs.

The extension department is responsible for providing high quality agricultural services to farmers in response
to local needs. The type of service, and the way in which it is provided, is given in two ways:

 Extension events planned in advance which form the Annual Extension Plan;
 Extension events planned in response to day-to-day interaction with farmers as follow up activities

All extension plans are prepared in either top-down or bottom-up approach as shown in the diagram. This
diagram is an example, which might changes and be different in each state.

2.2. Explain Events Planned in Advance?

Each year, staff in every district identify farmer information needs, and prepare an extension plan for the next
financial year, covering all seasons. Generally, the annual extension plan includes major items of work, such as
motivational tours, method demonstrations, result demonstrations, field days and formal farmer training. The
annual plan is reviewed for appropriateness prior to implementation.

2.3. What are Follow-up Events?

During the year, Head of Extension Workers works closely with farmers, implementing activities from the
annual extension plan. In many cases, implementing these activities leads to new ideas for extension events,
and for follow-up work, which was not in the annual extension plan. In order to maintain flexibility, and where
these ideas involve no significant additional expenditure, they should be undertaken. Extension staff should
not confuse these two types of planning, they both aim at providing farmer responsive extension activities,
one planned in advance, and one planned in response to day-to-day interaction with farmers.

For example, the annual extension plan may include a motivational tour to a research site. At the end of the
tour, the extension staff and farmers may decide that it would be useful to implement a method
demonstration about one of the technologies they saw on the tour as a follow-up activity.

3
2.4. What steps are needed to prepare an annual plan?
The Annual Extension Plan follows a sequence of 15 steps, which should be completed within a specific time, in
order to produce an extension plan for approval at headquarters. This sequence of steps is shown in table
below.

Plans are produced each year. They are to be reviewed every quarter to ensure that they remain appropriate.

Main activity Activity break down

1. Farmer Information Needs Working with male and female farmers, operating small and large
Assessment farms, to identify problems and information needs, using the Problem
Census, participatory rural appraisal (PRA), meetings and the
Extension Diary.
2. District* Agricultural Extension Sharing information about farmer needs, available resources and
Co-ordination ideas for collaboration between all local Government and Non-
Committee/departments meetings Government extension agencies.
3. Collating planning information Combining / Merging background information, monitoring and
evaluation data, results of Knowledge, Attitude and Practices (KAP)
Surveys and Technical Audits and assessments results to help in
planning.
4. Island Planning Workshops Developing an extension plan on the basis of island needs and
planning information, by involving all extension staff in the Island, and
inviting other organizations if appropriate.
5. Preparing district planning and Writing up the results of the Island Planning Workshop and preparing
budgeting documents documents.
6. Island Extension Planning Reviewing and approving district extension plans.
Committee meetings
7. Preparing annual in-service Preparing requests for state level mass media and in service staff
training and media requests training programs.
8. Preparing annual district Preparing a plan of district level activities, then sending them to
extension plan and budget regional level.
9. Agricultural Technical Conducting a technical review of extension plans at regional level,
Committee/department meetings with research participation.
10. Adjusting Island extension Adjusting district and Island extension plans on the basis of step 9
plans Results reviews.
11. Preparing consolidated Consolidating and approving all district and Island level extension
Extension Plans and budgets plans and budgets
12. Conducting in-service training Training staff in the necessary technical and extension skills prior to
implementing the extension plan.
13. Implementing and monitoring Implementing extension activities as planned, and using the Seasonal
Extension Monitoring System and Technical Audits.
14. Evaluating last year’s extension Evaluating extension programs using Knowledge, Attitude and
program Practice Surveys. Analyzing assessment and Technical Audit results.
15. Developing budget for next Estimating budgets which will be required for next year, and preparing
Financial Year and reporting last a brief annual report for last year.
year’s extension program.
*Three levels of aerial administration referred to here, from smallest to largest, are district, island, and state.

2.5. Implementation and monitoring

Implementing extension activities from the plan and follow up activities recorded in the Extension Diary is the
key to successful extension work and takes place throughout the year. However, in order to provide necessary
feedback so that planners (at district and island) can assess which activities are particularly successful or to
identify areas of weakness it is necessary to record how each event took place. This is known as monitoring. It
is important to recognize that monitoring data collected during implementation is an essential component of
the planning process.

4
2.6. Evaluating last year extension program
Evaluation includes analyzing the monitoring information recorded during implementation. Evaluation should
take place after each quarter to:

 check whether objectives have been achieved

 check whether objectives were appropriate
 identify any particular strengths
 Identify whether there were weaknesses. This information is then fed into the planning process. It
helps planners decide appropriate activities and training for the next year’s plan.

2.8. Developing estimated budgets

Advance budgets are prepared for approval. Steps for preparing advance budgets follow.

STEPS FOR ADVANCE BUDGETING

1. Take the total figure from the current extension plan
2. Assess the extent to which extension service costs can actually be reduced (e.g. by planning more low
or no cost events and using more mass media)
3. Reduce the total figure to actuals
4. Decide whether there are additional activities that may be implemented in the next financial year.
5. Draft a cost for these activities and add it to your new total.
6. Submit recommendations with a simple justification in a letter to the approving bodies

2.9. Preparing Annual Reports

To complete the annual planning process COM-FSM CRE/Agriculture Officer is required to submit a simple
annual report covering the previous financial year to the approver (e.g. governor, chief of agriculture, etc). The
report should contain:

 Description of achievements against targets

 A note of actual expenditure for extension activities against planned expenditure.
 Success stories
 Failures and reason for not achieving specific objectives
 List of recommendations for future programs

5
Chapter 3: Communication for extension
3.1. What is Communication?
Communication - the sharing of ideas and information - forms a large part of the extension agent's job. By
passing on ideas, advice and information, he/she hopes to influence the decisions of farmers. He/she may also
wish to encourage farmers to communicate with one another; the sharing of problems and ideas is an
important stage in planning group or village activities. The agent must also be able to communicate with
superior officers and research workers about the situation faced by farmers in his area.

3.2. How communication for extension happens?

Any act of communication, be it a speech at a public meeting, a written report, a radio broadcast or a question
from a farmer, includes four important elements:

1. Source:

 The source, or where the information or idea comes from;

2. Message:

 The message, which is the information or idea that is communicated;

3. Channel:

 The channel, which is the way the message is transmitted;

4. Receiver:

 The receiver, who is the person for whom the message is intended. Any communicator must consider
all four elements carefully, as they all contribute to effectiveness. In considering each of these
elements, the questions that follow provide a useful check-list.

3.4. Extension communication system

Communication, in extension, may be thought of as two-way stimulus-response situation in which the
necessary stimulus is provided by the communicator (the Extension Agent) in the form of a message, which
provides certain response on the audience (the farmers).

6
A diagrammatic representation of the extension communication system based on the model developed by
Leaguns (1963) is presented in figure below:

3.5. Why is listening important for extension workers?

A good communicator listens more than he speaks. An extension agent who does not listen to farmers and
engage in a dialogue with them is unlikely to be very effective.

3.6. What is importance of Feedback in agricultural communication?

Extension communication is never complete without adequate and correct feedback information. Feedback
means carrying some significant responses of the audience back to the communicator. Communication work is
not an end in itself. The Extension Agent should know what has happened after the message has reached
them. Some of the characteristics of feedback are,

a) it is source oriented,
b) it varies in different communication situations
c) it affects the source or communicator
d) it exerts control over future messages
e) it affects the degree of desirable changes in receivers behavior as a result of communication)
f) it maintains the stability and equilibrium of a communication system

3.7. What is mass media?

Mass media are those channels of communication, which can expose large numbers of people to the same
information at the same time.

3.8. What are types of mass media?

They include media which convey information by sound (radio, audio cassettes); moving pictures (television,
film, video); and print (posters, newspapers, leaflets).

3.9. Why mass media is important for extension?

The attraction of mass media to extension services is the high speed and low cost with which information can
be communicated to people over a wide area.

3.10. What are some tools of mass media used for extension?
 Radio
 Radio Talks
 Interviews on radio
 Film
 Television and video

7
  Printed media
o Posters
o Brochure
o Leaflets
o Circular letters
o Newspaper
o Chalkboards
o Flip charts
o Flannel graphs
o Projected aids

Figure 1
Example of poster (prepared for Samoa under FAO funded project for extension purposes)
© FAO/S. Sherzad

8
Chapter 4: Methods of extension
4.1. What are key extension methods?
Extension methods are classified as:

1. Individual
2. Group
3. Mass

4.2. What are individual methods?

4.2.1. Farm Visit
Farm visits are the most common form of personal contact between the agent and the farmer and often
constitute over 50 percent of the agent's extension activities. Because they take up so much of the agent's
time, it is important to be clear about the purpose of such visits and to plan them carefully. Farm visits can:

• familiarize the extension agent with the farmer and his family;
• enable him to give specific advice or information to the farmer;

Figure 2
Farm visit organized under FAO funded project in the Solomon Islands
© FAO/ S. Sherzad

4.2.2. Office calls

Just as the extension agent visits the farmer, so he can expect that from time to time the farmer will visit him
at his office. Such a visit is often a reflection of the interest, which the agent may have aroused among the
local farmers. The more confidence local farmers have in the extension agent, the more likely they are to visit
him.

4.2.3. Letters
Occasionally, the extension agent will correspond with a farmer by letter. Letters can be a follow-up inquiry
resulting from an agent's farm visit, or sent because a farmer is unable to make a personal office visit. Drafting
and replying to letters are very important skills for the extension worker and he should give every thought to
them.

9
4.3. What are group methods of extension?
4.3.1. Group meetings
Calling the members of a group or the inhabitants of a local community together for a meeting is the
commonest group extension method. Although there may be an air of informality about such meetings, they
will nevertheless need to be carefully thought out and planned.

4.3.2. Demonstrations
4.3.2.1. Result demonstrations with farmers groups

Result demonstrations show what happens as a result of using a particular technology in the field or
homestead. Examples include growing cucumber using balanced fertilizer. Result demonstrations can be
conducted over a single season, two seasons, or a whole year. Although some result demonstrations are
conducted with an individual farmer, others are conducted with groups.

4.3.2.2. Cropping pattern demonstrations

Cropping pattern demonstrations are implemented throughout a whole year and cover three seasons. This
makes it possible to demonstrate a rotation of crops. The advantage of a cropping pattern demonstration is
that farmers can learn how to integrate a new crop into their farming system. Principles of integrated plant
nutrition can also be demonstrated, for example by applying full fertilizer to the some crop, and allowing crops
in the other two seasons to take advantage of residual effects. In the latter case, cropping pattern
demonstrations are based on the normal cropping patterns in the area, and only show adjusted fertilizer
doses. All other operations remain the same as the farmer’s usual practices.

4.3.2.3. Block demonstrations

Block demonstrations are planned and implemented with a group of farmers who operate land next to one
another. In this way, the area of the demonstration can be quite large, up to two or three, or perhaps five
hectares. Block demonstrations present a strong visual impact, and involve working with a group of 10 to 15
farmers. A block demonstration is simply a large demonstration. This means that they can be cropping pattern
demonstrations, single season demonstrations, single intervention demonstrations or package
demonstrations.

4.3.2.4. Single season demonstrations

Single season demonstrations last for only one season. They are usually conducted with a single crop, unless
the demonstration involves intercropping.

Single season demonstrations are used to demonstrate a single aspect of crop production. A single season
demonstration can be any size, so it could be a block demonstration.

4.3.2.5. Single intervention demonstrations

Single intervention demonstrations are conducted on a crop which is already being grown in an area. They
show only one adjustment to the farmers practice. A single intervention demonstration has two plots, one
control plot which is the farmer’s normal practice (variety, fertilizer, water management, or pest and disease
management), and one demonstration plot. There is only one difference between the control and the
demonstration plot. For example, a different timing to fertilizer applications, or the use of a different water
management practice. This is so that the farmer clearly understands the precise benefits of a single change.
Single intervention demonstrations also usually show ideas which farmers can adopt at little cost. In theory, a
single intervention demonstration could be of any size or duration, so it could be a cropping pattern
demonstration, a single season demonstration, a block demonstration, or a single farmer demonstration.

4.3.2.6. Package demonstrations

Package demonstrations are conducted mainly for crops, which are new in an area. For new crops, a package
demonstration shows which variety to plant and when, what fertilizer to use and when, what water

10
management procedures to use, how to control pests and diseases and all other aspects of production. There
is no control plot, as the crop is new to the area.

A package demonstration could be of any size or duration, so it could form part of a cropping pattern
demonstration, be a single season demonstration, or a block demonstration.

4.3.2.7. Single farmer demonstrations

Result demonstrations can also be conducted as an individual event. Single farmer demonstrations are
conducted with one farmer, as opposed to block demonstrations which are conducted with a group of farmers
over several hectares of land. Single farmer demonstrations are smaller, and often comprise two plots, a
demonstration and a control, each of which perhaps cover 50 m2 or 100 m2.

Figure 3
Demonstration plot – using keyhole garden concept (funded under FAO project in Samoa)
© FAO/ S. Sherzad

4.3.3. FIELD DAYS

A field day is a group extension event conducted at the site of any type of result demonstration. With single
farmer result demonstrations, the field day is important to improve the cost-effectiveness of the
demonstration. Field days provide the opportunity for

10 or more farmers to visit a demonstration site, learn about what is being demonstrated, ask questions, and
encourage them to try new ideas themselves on their own farms. A series of field days, especially those that
last for a year and show a cropping pattern, provide an ideal opportunity for farmers to meet again.

Field days are arranged at key times during the demonstration, when particular management activities are
implemented, or when the benefits of the demonstration are most visible. For crop production
demonstrations, appropriate times could be:

 At the time of planting

 When fertilizers or other inputs are provided
 At mid-season when differences in crop growth are apparent
 At harvest time when yields, costs and benefits can be compared

11
A minimum of two field days for a single season demonstration is recommended. For cropping pattern
demonstrations, which involve three consecutive seasons, two field days in each season, or a total of six field
days during the year, are recommended.

Field days generally last no more than an hour or so, and involve no cost. There is no allowance for either
extension staff or farmers. Refreshments are not necessary as the event is short. Dates and times should be
fixed in advance, and advertised to neighboring farmers. Where there is a demonstration signboard, field day
schedules should be added. The same group of farmers should be encouraged to attend consecutive field days
at specific sites. However, the number of participants should not exceed 20 to 25 farmers. Smaller groups will
have a better opportunity to see what is being demonstrated, and hear the explanations of farmers and
extension staff. In addition, with fewer people, a greater proportion of participants will have the opportunity
to ask questions and participate properly in the field day.

4.3.4. Methods demonstration

Method demonstrations are group extension events conducted over one to two hours to demonstrate and
practice a specific skill, step by step. Method demonstrations are low cost and relatively efficient as they
involve one extension worker and several farmers. They are participatory and enable farmers to learn by
doing.

4.3.5. District/Island agricultural fairs

A fair can be an effective way to create awareness about improved technologies to a large number of people
within a short time and to stimulate general motivation for agricultural and rural development in the area. It
can also play a valuable role in strengthening relationships between extension partners. Farmers are able to
see a range of technologies and ideas displayed by non-government organizations, other government agencies
and dealers and discuss them in a lively and informal way. Every district and Island should organize at least one
fair every year, which is open to all categories of farmers in the area

4.3.6. Farm walks

A farm walk involves a group of farmers visiting a farm and walking around it with the host farmer and the
extension agent. The purpose of a farm walk could be one of the following:

 to give farmers an opportunity to see how a new technology has been tried, tested or adopted by one
of their neighbors;
 Implementation Monitoring and Evaluation and Follow Up to give farmers an opportunity to see a
technology which has been developed by one of their neighbors; to give farmers an opportunity to
analyses a farming system and identify opportunities for improvement. Used in this way, a farm walk
is a useful supplement to the Problem Census in gaining farmer participation in the process of
assessment, and could be considered as one of the techniques associated with PRA
 To give farmers an opportunity to reach agreement on how a particular problem can be tackled, or to
plan and implement new ideas as a group. This is often particularly important with approaches to
farming such as Integrated Pest Management (IPM) which are not very successful when implemented
by a single farmer whose neighbors use chemical pest control techniques;
 They can also be used as an activity to assist group formation.

4.3.7. Farmers rallies

Farmers’ rallies are large extension events, which usually involve a combination of activities centered around a
main theme (e.g. the use of folk song, drama, banners to support a central presentation about IPM). They
should only be used for introducing successful technologies.

Although the cost of organizing a farmers’ rally may appear to be significantly higher than other extension
events they do have the advantage of attracting large numbers of farmers from a wide range of backgrounds.
This enables them to be potentially cost effective. In addition, one rally could be organized by a number of
districts to share costs and resources or by a district.

12
4.3.8. Folk media
Folk media is a traditional form of entertainment and communication, which is practiced in some countries,
e.g. Bangladesh.

For extension programs, they present the opportunity to convey agricultural information in a culturally
acceptable way, stimulate discussion about local issues among farmers, and make extension events enjoyable.

Folk media includes:

 song;
 drama;
 story telling;
 dance; and
 Puppets.

No modern technology or audio visual aids are required, these methods can be relatively cheap and are useful
where literacy levels are low. Folk media can be fun for both extension staff and farmers. They are also
interesting for radio broadcast, so it may be worthwhile inviting local radio/TV to record events where songs,
drama or story telling are used.

4.3.9. Group meetings

Group meetings are opportunities for extension staff and farmers to come together to discuss and analyze
issues and ideas. They are generally short, not exceeding a couple of hours, and involve no or low cost. There
are two basic types of group meetings, with many variations:

Small group meetings, which usually comprise one extension agent and not more than 10 farmers, who are
either members of an existing group or a temporary group interested in a particular agricultural issue.

Large group or community meetings, which usually comprise several extension agents and a local community.
Such events are most useful for conveying important or urgent information, and are advertised by miking or
posters.

4.3.10. Motivational tours

A motivational tour involves taking a group of up to 5-10 farmers from their village or block to another area.
Motivational tours usually last a day. Motivational tours expose farmers to developments and new
technologies, which are being used by farmers in another area, or are being developed at research stations,
horticultural base nurseries, or activities being implemented by other extension organizations such as NGOs.
Tours present a good opportunity for farmers from different areas to exchange ideas with one another

4.3.11. Participatory technology development

Participatory Technology Development (PTD) is a process of developing technology, which is led by farmers.
The purpose of PTD is to:
 test farmers technology ideas;
 test, under local conditions, a technology that has been successful in other areas;
 try out a modification to an existing or recommended technology to see if it can be more successful
under local conditions;
 Develop the capacity of farmers to solve their own problems through experimenting with ideas.

PTD differs from demonstrations, as it:

 does not involve showing a farmer a proven or recommended technology;
 is conducted in a participatory manner and farmers are full partners;
 Cannot be predicted, nothing can be promised, and nothing is guaranteed.

Conducting PTD is a learning process for everybody, with extension staff acting as facilitators. In return,
farmers understand that there is no room for complaint or compensation if the technology which they test
proves to be less suitable than their existing practice. If the idea being tested turns out to be a failure, the

13
process is often a success because of the learning that has occurred. Farmers have always been active
developers of farming practices. PTD builds on, supports and encourages this capacity. The use of PTD is linked
to the Department’s extension approach which may seeks to encourage farmer participation.

4.3.12. Formal training days

A formal training day is a group extension event. It is a structured, planned event with objectives and a written
training plan, which involves training materials and trainers. Formal training days generally last for half or a
whole day, generally catering for approximately 20 farmers. Formal training days can be held at any venue, at
block, union, village or district t level. Generally, the closer to farmers’ homes the better. There are three types
of formal training day, based on the cost of the event. These are:

 formal training day with no cost;

 formal training day with materials cost; and
 Formal training day with all costs.

4.3.13. Farmer field schools

Unlike other farmer training that takes place at village level, Farmer Field Schools (FFS) are usually instigated
by the Agriculture Officer (or near to the Agricultural Extension specific area). This is because they are often
organized as part of a national program for introducing new technology and tend to require a large
investment.

The FFS approach is field orientated and participatory placing emphasis on learning by doing. Training takes
place over an extended period such as a cropping season and is a combination of classroom and field work.
Training is also holistic in that it follows the farming systems adopted by participants. This means that the
training starts from an understanding of existing farmers practice e.g. inputs used, resources available for
production, market prices, availability of inputs etc.

4.4. Mass extension

Extension methods for a larger public (mass extension) are most suitable for fast and widespread transfer of
easily understandable information and proven messages. They are not suitable for extension packages which
cannot be understood without intensive discussions, questions and feedback from farmers. The advantages of
mass extension are obvious:

• They reach a larger public and are highly cost-efficient in terms of costs per reached farmer
• They can re-enforce points already introduced during group and individual extension
processes
• They can convey messages on emergencies like outbreaks of endemic diseases (e.g. grass
hopper, grain borer, etc.) and therefore make a larger public aware of such outbreaks in a
very short time. The most common mass extension methods are village meetings (Section
4.4.1), field days (Section 4.4.2) and extension campaigns (Section 4.4.3).

4.4.1. Village meetings

Village meetings are normally used for spreading a message relevant for the whole or large parts of a village.
Village meetings are used for the following purposes:

• To inform the village about a topic of interest to all or most of the villagers e.g. about an
outbreak of disease and consequent emergency measures
• To inform the village about a village event like Participatory Situation Analysis or a
Government Crop Program and to agree with the village population on timing and overall
principle procedures of village events
• To inform the village about the results of village research, Participatory Situation Analysis,
etc. and get feedback from the whole village.

14
4.4.2. Field days
Field days are normally used to demonstrate improved production techniques being used by one or more
farmers, demonstration plots or research stations, to a large number of farmers. See section 4.3.3 for more
information.

4.4.3. Extension campaigns

Extension campaigns are suitable to spread a central message to a larger number of farmers. The objective is
to propagate this central message as quickly as possible to as many farmers as possible via mass meetings and
the use of all available media (see also next point).

Campaigns are particularly suitable for implementing pronounced policy objectives (e.g. the policy of self-
sufficiency in rice in Timor-Leste. Therefore, campaigns have been conducted in Timor-Leste during the last
years mainly on the intensification of (mechanized) rice production). The advantages of extension campaigns
are as follows:

 Campaigns make the farmer aware of existing programs supported by Government (or others),
usually with subsidized inputs (as is the case in Timor-Leste with mechanization, seeds and fertilizer
for the rice campaigns)
 Campaigns give clear and simple messages, which do not need strong backing by group extension
(however, many campaigns need follow- up on a group extension basis). Extension Campaigns need
thorough and specific planning, organization, implementation and monitoring. To outline the design
of an extension campaign would over-stretch this manual and needs a separate manual.

Figure 4
Vanilla farm in the Cook Islands – which could be also used for the extension purposes
© FAO/ S. Sherzad

15
Annex 1: Practical tools for the extension workers
Tool 1: Guidelines for Successful meetings/workshops
Preparation

The moderator prepares the meeting well in advance. This means:

• To fix timing and content of meetings and make them known to the participants
• To assure that proposals are worked out in writing for outstanding decisions and that they
are made known to the other participants well in advance (at least one day before). Those
who want to present cases for decision making, should be encouraged to present proposals
in an acceptable form (visualized)
• To prepare the meeting place (chairs in semi-circle, if possible; preparation of visualization
materials, for example felt pens and flipcharts etc.)
• To read protocols from previous meetings carefully so that follow up of previous decisions is
not forgotten.

Facilitation

• The moderator is responsible for the process, not for the contents of the meeting. Therefore,
he/she must guide the meeting target oriented, to look for the time schedule and to assure
that everybody has the chance to speak and nobody is allowed to talk all the time. Here, a
certain strong personality is necessary.
• The mandate for moderation must be accepted from everybody. The moderator is, for the
time of the moderation, not colleague, boss or subordinate but the ‘president‘ of this
meeting. Everybody must accept his guidance concerning the process and the methodology
of the meeting.
• Each moderation starts with seeking acceptance for the protocol of the previous meeting
and follows-up which decisions from last meetings have been implemented, which not and
why not.
• The moderator is responsible for the documentation of decisions (result-protocol). This does
not mean that he has to write the protocol but only that he has to assure that the protocol is
written. Usually, he/she asks a colleague to make the protocol because moderation and
making protocol is usually too much for one person.
• The moderator must assure that relevant decisions are taken and that responsibilities for the
implementation of decisions are clear at the end of the meeting.

Follow-up

• Protocols of meetings should be written from the notes immediately after the meetings in
order not to forget important points. The protocol should be distributed as soon as possible
to all participants of the meeting.
• Those persons who have been made responsible for the implementation should be made
accountable for the implementation. This does not mean that they have to do everything by
themselves; they only have to assure that things are done. Tasks should be, as much as
possible, delegated to lower level staff.

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Tool 2: Guidelines for resource mapping
Description

 A resource map is a map showing a village with its natural resources with special regard to different
aspects like:
- natural resources (e.g. land, fields, forests, rivers )
- infrastructure (e.g. streets, paths, wells, water tanks)
- social facilities (e.g. houses, schools, health centre)
 One key feature of the resource map is that it should be constructed with the local materials available
(e.g., seeds, stones, leaves) by the villagers themselves.

Objectives

 to gain an overview of the situation with special regard to the resources available in the village as
perceived by the villagers
 to learn about access and control over resources
 to find out and discuss the different perceptions of various groups on problems within the village
 to discuss potentials, problems, needs, arising from the information gathered through the process of
drawing the map

Activities

 Ask the participants to draw a map on the ground showing the whole village with all the important
items, according to their own perception.
 Suggest using symbols or natural resources for visualizing the different items.
 Throughout the process pay attention that the others agree when somebody has arranged or
rearranged something in the map. If they disagree, ask for reasons and try to facilitate the process to
reach a general agreement.
 Ask one of the villagers to draw a copy of the resource map on paper. Make sure that the copy really
represents the original and that the legend is complete.

Actors/Responsibilities

 Extension agents
 Whole village/community members

Time

 depends on the number of participants and the size of the village

 roughly two hours

Suggestions/ Comments

 Prepare in advance all the necessary items for the construction of the map and choose a
suitable place.
 Ensure that everybody in the village community participates during the construction.
Encourage non-participants to get involved!
 Try to draw conclusions already about various groups and their respective problems in the
village. Listen closely to people's talk during the whole process.
 Indicate community projects identified during PNA on the map.

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Tool 3: Guidelines for farmers’ training/group discussions
Group discussions is probably the most widespread group extension methodology. The classic
setting is a discussion group in a circle or round table arrangement, be it outside or inside. The
success or failure of group discussions depends largely on the level of preparation and depends on
the following factors

Group size

The number of people should ideally not exceed 10 to 15. Larger groups tend to be less inclined to
hold together, do not give individuals enough chance to speak, and are prone to domination by
people with higher status and greater aggression.

• Place

Group discussions should be carried out in central, quiet venues. If they continue for any length of
time, seats and writing facilities should be provided.

• Participants

The group should be relatively homogeneous with regard to resource endowment, the practical
obstacles it has to tackle, and its interests. However, some differences among members make an
exchange more interesting, provided that a climate of mutual trust can be created.

• Information

The participants should be informed about the points to be dealt with well before the beginning of
the discussion. Where groups already exist, this advance warning can be given on notice boards in
the middle of the village or by providing specific contacts with the necessary information.

• Agenda

The agenda for group discussions must be carefully prepared so as not to demand too much of the
participants. Wherever possible, the advisers should work out the items and discuss them in advance
with representatives of the group. In this way, the adviser gets a more realistic idea of the reactions
that can be expected from the rest. Advisers, and particularly “experts”, tend to overestimate the
ability of local client groups to take in information.

• Preparation of content

The adviser must prepare the group sessions carefully in order to present the necessary information
effectively and to put appropriate and stimulating questions to the group. If it is not possible to
prepare leaflets or hand-outs, there should at least be a blackboard or some other item of
presentation equipment available. Leaflets and handouts should be prepared in English with
translation in the local language as well Practical demonstrations should be fully rehearsed
beforehand. Questions of detail should be clarified in preparatory discussions with other advisers or
by consulting specialists. When their presence is necessary, they should if possible be brought into
the group discussions.

18
Tool 4: Guidelines for cross-visits
On a Cross-Visit, a group travels to another location to observe agricultural practices, projects or
demonstrations not available locally. Farmers from one village will see the successes of other
farmers in another village. On such trips, farmers can learn through their own experience. The trip
may consist of one or more stops. The purpose of the field trip is

• to provide first-hand observation of practices that might be of benefit to the farmer

or householder and farm worker
• to enable the group to interact with individuals knowledgeable about the practices;
and to present a fresh and different learning environment for both the extension
worker and the clientele.

The following hints are given for the planning and conduct of cross-visits:

• Field trips should be organized with a very specific, limited objective, for instance
compost heaping, seed multiplication, and so on
• The group taken on a field trip should be limited to a maximum of 5-7 key persons.
These key persons should already have an interest in the topic and be motivated to
learn more
• Field trips should be organized not too close to the participants’ home area, but
conditions in the area to be visited should be as similar to their own area as possible
• The host farmers should do most of the talking and responding to the questions
• After the field trip the adviser should ask for feedback about the field trip from the
participants

The ideas on preparing, running and evaluating demonstrations (Tool 7 & 8) and group discussions
(Tool 3) can essentially be applied to field days, too.

Tool 5: Criteria for selecting ‘pilot farmers’

Pilot farmers are farmers who are willing and able to conduct on-farm-trials, demonstrations and
have the potential to advise other farmers (for the farmer-to-farmer approach). Pilot farmers have a
very important function for extension as they can multiply the impact of the AE in extension. In
addition, pilot farmers are the main contact partners of advisers, and in this capacity they pass on
information and techniques to other farmers. As representatives of the client groups, contact
farmers see that the wishes, proposals and criticisms of the farmers are taken into consideration
when extension measures and programs are formulated. Pilot farmers should preferably be selected
from farmer groups. However, other farmers with the potential being contact farmers should not be
excluded. The following criteria should be followed when selection pilot farmers.
© FAO/ Shukrullah Sherzad

Social-economic criteria

• Pilot farmers must be accepted and respected by the farmer group or the farming
population. In the ideal case, the pilot farmer is selected/chosen by the group/the people
themselves
• Pilot farmers should have sufficient status in the client group to counter the sanctions that
could be applied when unconventional innovations are tested. It is an advantage if the pilot
farmers have sufficient status for the farmers to accept their role in testing innovations
• Pilot farmers must not be motivated simply by personal advantage, such as the cost free
provision of inputs, or keeping the innovations on their farm a secret in order to benefit
from the innovation gain alone
• Pilot farmers should always behave in solidarity with the members of their client group

19
 • Pilot farmers must be open, communicative and willing to share agriculture extension
information and innovative practices with other farmers

Agriculture and agricultural practices

• • Pilot farmers should have a similar resource endowment as the other farmers (not too
resource rich and not too resource poor)
• • Pilot farmers should have the similar basic agricultural practices as the farmers in their
respective client group. However, pilot farmers must be recognized as somebody interested
in trying out new practices in the past which proved to be successful
• • Pilot farmers’ farms should be suitably located to allow easy access to the maximum
number of client group members

Know-how and skills

• A good formal education is an advantage but not be condition. More important than formal
education is the willingness and ability to accept agriculture extension ideas and to integrate
new agriculture extension information
• Pilot farmers must have the ability to carry out trials and interview the agents correctly
(time, content, observations)
• Pilot farmers must be capable of advising farmers and giving them factually correct
information and advice at the right time. They must also be in a position to interpret
farmers' reactions correctly
• An important precondition of selecting pilot farmers is the willingness to undergo further
training, either by means of courses, training by the adviser, or with the aid of printed
material or electronic media.

20
Tool 6: Guidelines for farm and home visit
Farm and home visits
Description It is a direct, face-to-face contact by the extension agent with a farmer or
homemaker at their farm or home for extension work. The extension agent
communicates with the people individually maintaining a separate identity of
each person
Objectives • To get acquainted with and gain confidence of farmers and homemakers.
• To obtain and/or give firsthand information on matters relating to farm and
home.
• To advise and assist in solving specific problems, and teach skills.
• To sustain interest.
Situation • People to be contacted are few in number.
• Farmers are conveniently located close to the extension agent
• Sufficient time is available for communication
Procedure Planning for preparation
• Decide on the audience and the objectives – whom to meet and what for?
• Get adequate information about the topic.
• Collect relevant publications and materials to be handed over.
• Make a schedule of visits to save time and money.
• If possible, send advance information.
Implementation
• Visit on the scheduled date or according to convenience of the farmer and
when the person is likely to listen.
• Create interest of the farmer and allow the individual to talk first.
• Present the message or points of view and explain up to the satisfaction of
the farmer.
• Answer to questions raised and clarify doubts. Hand over publications, if any.
• Try to get some assurance for action.
Follow-up
• Keep appropriate record of visit
• Send committed information or material
• Make subsequent visits as and when necessary
Advantages • Helps to build a rapport with farmers
• Helps to identify local leadership.
• Helps to change attitude of people.
• Helps in teaching complex practices
• Enhances effectiveness of group and mass media methods.
• Facilitates getting feedback information
Limitations • Only a limited number of contacts may be made.
• Time consuming and relatively expensive.
• Favoritism may develop towards some farmers.
Tips Avoid concentrating your attention on a few big and progressive farmers
thereby creating a prejudice towards the larger number of small and marginal
farmers, landless labor and backward people.

21
Tool 7: Guidelines for results demonstration
Result Demonstration
Description Result demonstration is a method of motivating people for adoption of a
new practice by showing its distinct superior results.
Objective To show the advantages and applicability of a newly recommended practice
in farmer’s own situation.
• To motivate groups of people in the community to adopt a new practice
by showing its results.
• To develop innovative leadership
Situation • When it is necessary to communicate with a group of people, rather than
individuals, to show the benefits of a new innovation.
• When the probable results of the demonstration trial is known
beforehand through research findings, experience in its application in other
areas and its potential adaptability to the conditions prevailing in the local
area.
Procedure Planning and preparation
• Analyze farmer’s situations and select relevant beneficial practices, in
consultation with subject matter specialists and researchers.
• Select few responsible, innovative and cooperating farmers who posses
adequate resources and facilities, and having acceptance in the local
community, with consensus of the farmer leaders, for conducting the
demonstration. This, however, does not imply that big farmers are to be
selected.
• Select representative locations for conducting the demonstrations where
it will be easily visible to a large number of people in the community.
• Develop a complete plan of work clearly identifying each individual step
and who has the responsibility each task, along with a time schedule.
• Discuss with the selected farmer and work with him to make sure that he
understands the purpose of the demonstration and how it will be
implemented.
• Organize materials and equipment required for conducting the
demonstration.
• Give adequate publicity about the demonstration highlighting the date
and time as well as the topic and its relevance. For example, by means of
displaying a colorful signboard, for each demonstration plot, put up in
prominent and visible places.

Implementation
• Put up suitable signboard for each demonstration site
• Start the demonstration on the scheduled date and time in the presence
of those who will be present.
• Welcome the attending farmers and explain the objectives of the
demonstration.
• Ensure that all critical operations are done in time and try to supervise
them personally.
• Motivate as many farmers as possible to be present at the time of final
assessment of the results.
• Make frequent visits to monitor the demonstration plots closely during
their entire trial period and make sure that they are progressing well.
• Take photographs for record and help the demonstrating farmers to
maintain

22
 records
• Arrange method demonstrations where a new skill is involved.
• Conduct field days and farmers days around successful demonstrations.
• Encourage the demonstrating farmers to explain the procedures and
experiences to visiting farmers as much as possible.
• Analyze and interpret the results and compare them with those under the
existing farming practice.
• Motivate the farmers to accept the new practices by emphasizing its
applicability under the farmers own situation and the financial benefits that
could be realized.

Follow-up
• Use the results of the demonstration in future extension work and also
release on to mass media for further dissemination.
• Prepare extension material, particularly visual aids such as photographs,
charts, videos, etc, on the demonstrations for future use in extension
programs.
• Engage the demonstration farmers in farmers meetings and training
programs.
Advantages • It helps to produce positive results for extension worker by creating
confidence in their judgment and ability.
• It helps to open way for further interaction with the farmers.
• Hands-on participation in the trial will train and encourage the farmers to
act in a more systematic and scientific manner.
Limitation • Unsuccessful demonstrations may cause some setback to extension work.
• It can be costly in terms of time, energy and funds for the extension work.
Tips To enhance its effectiveness, result demonstration should be integrated
with the total extension program.
If the particular result demonstration may involve new skills development, it
can most effectively be combined with method demonstration.
Similarly, application of other extension communication techniques such as
field days and farmers days can be arranged to center around successful
demonstrations.
Avoid using the same set of demonstration farmers continuously for
subsequent demonstrations as this may be regarded as favoritism towards
some selected farmers by the extension agent.

23
Tool 8: Guidelines for method demonstration
Method demonstration
Description The method demonstration shows a group of people how an entirely new
technique or an old practice in an improved way is carried out step-by step. It is
sometimes used to complement result demonstration.
Objective To teach skills and stimulate people to action
• To discard ineffective or inefficient practices
• To improve the final result by doing a job in a better way.
• To build up learners confidence and satisfaction on the practice
Situation When skills development is emphasized to carry out a job more effectively as
means of improving the final result.
Procedure Planning for preparation
• Identify the problems giving due consideration and involving the local clientele
• Select the skill which is important and needed by the farmers for immediate use
• Ensure the participation of subject matter specialists.
• Assemble the relevant information, materials and equipment.
• Plan the presentation step-by-step including an introduction and summery, and
practice the demonstration.
• Decide on the date and time for the demonstration in consultation with the
farmer leaders and relevant subject matter specialists, and give timely intimation
to all concerned.
• Display diagrams, photographs, charts, etc., at the demonstration site.

Implementation
• Start the demonstration on the scheduled date and time in the presence of
those who will be present.
• Welcome the attending farmers and explain the objectives of the
demonstration.
• Show each operation step-by-step, explaining clearly why and how it is done.
• Ensure that all the participants have seen the demonstration and have
understood it. Repeat difficult steps if required.
• Invite the participants one by one or in small batches to practice the skill.
• Clarify doubts and answer their questions.
• After the participants have completed practicing the skill, summarize the
proceedings highlighting the key points.
• Hand over relevant publications.

Follow-up
• Keep a record of the participants and maintain contact with then
• Assist participants to acquire the required material and equipment.
Advantages • It involves seeing, hearing, participation and practicing in a group which
stimulate interest and action.
• As the results of method demonstration are known within a relatively short
time, it is very effective in persuading people to acquire the skill.
limitations • Suitable mainly for practices involving skills
• Require good deal of preparation, equipment and skill of the extension agent.
• Not all the participants may get the opportunity to practice the skill depending
on the size of the gathering and time available.

24
Tool 9: Guidelines for group meetings
Group meeting
Description Group meeting is a method of democratically arriving at a decision by a group of
people, after taking into consideration the members point of view.
Objective • To prepare a favorable climate for discussion and better understanding the
problem.
• To facilitate in-depth discussion by involving a small number of participants.
• To generate new ideas and methods involving useful traditional practices and
conventional wisdom, and select the rational ones through group interaction.
• To develop a favorable attitude and commitment for action through group
involvement.
Situation When pooling of knowledge and experience of a number of persons is desired in
arriving at collective decisions through shared opinion.
• To act as a safety valve for reducing tension that may arise as a result of local
disputes or outside influences.
Procedure Planning and preparation
• Prepare an agenda highlighting the topic to be discussed, decide who should
be involved and the date and time for holding the meeting.
• Assemble relevant information. Contact subject matter specialists, researchers
and resource persons for participation, if required

Implementation
• Start the meeting on the scheduled date and time.
• Introduce the topic to the group and initiate the discussion.
• Allow the members to talk and interact.
• Encourage the less vocal members to participate in the discussion.
• Assist the group to take decisions and keep record of the discussion.
• While facilitating the discussion, gentle guidance may be required to ensure
that it does not stray away from the main topic of the meeting.

Follow-up
• Remind members of the decision arrived and assist them to take action.
• Arrange for services consistent with the decisions
Advantages Promotes collective decision making as well as individual decision making by
using knowledge and experience of group members.
• The group process enhances peoples participation and facilitates program
implementation
• It develops the capability of the people to face challenges and adverse
situations
Limitations Requires understanding of group dynamics and skill of the extension agent.
• Village factions may hider successful use of this method
• Some self-discipline among members is needed for the method to be
successful.
• It is a slow process and may not be suitable in crisis or emergency situations.
Tips Convenient size of group for conducting a meeting or discussion may be around
5 to 10, which may be extended up to 30 as the situation demands. The
participants may be a cross section of the farming community representing all
strata from landless through small, medium and large farmers to land owners.

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Tool 10: Guidelines for small group training
Small group training
Description It is a technique of imparting specific skills to a group of people who need them
by creating an appropriate learning situation
Objective • To impart the needed skills to a small group of people.
• To motivate people to adopt new practices through skills training
Situation • Facilities for holding several sessions spreading over more than one day may
be required.
• Useful where transfer of technology (e.g., post harvest technology for
marketing, etc) is an important aspect
Procedure Planning and preparation
• Identify a technology for which there is a need in the community.
• Decide on the location, date, time and duration of the training program.
• Select trainers having both theoretical knowledge and practical experience
about the technology. They should have the ability to speak well and at the level
of the farmers.
• Prepare a written program allocating topics and time duration to different
trainers.
• Discuss the program with the trainers to finalize the presentations schedule.
• Collect relevant materials, publications and audio-visual aids.
• Inform all concerned in time.
• Make arrangements for refreshments, food, accommodation, transport and
other facilities according to the needs of the program.
• Allocate responsibilities to suitable persons.
• Make arrangements for registration of participants.

Implementation
• Start the training program on the appointed date and time.
• Distribute publications and materials for taking down notes at the time of
registration.
• Keep the inauguration function and other formalities to a minimum.
• Invite the trainers as per the program. Give enough time for discussion and the
trainees to react.
• Explain the relevant technology and state clearly why and how it should be
done.
• Use visual aids such as chalk or white board, flip-chart, models, O/H projector,
computer, etc, as appropriate.
• Arrange practical demonstrations and give enough time to each trainee for
practicing the skill.
• Clarify doubts and answer to their questions.
• Arrange for film/video show on the topic and/or visit to a location nearby
where they can see a successful demonstration of the practice

Follow-up
• Maintain contact with the trainees.
• Encourage and assist them to apply the new practice and remove hindrances.
Advantages • In-depth learning of skills is possible.
Limitations Only a small number of people can be trained at a time. • Follow-up requires
more staff and time

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Tool 11: Guidelines for a field day or farmers’ day
Field days
Description It is a method of motivating the people to adopt a new practice by showing
them what has actually been achieved by applying the practice under field
conditions.
Objective • To convince the farmers about applicability of the practice in their own
situation.
• To motivate them to adopt the practice by showing its performance and
profitability under field conditions.
• To remove doubts and unfavorable attitude about the new practice.
• To reinforce previous learning about the practice.
Situation Field days or farmers’ days can be held in research and demonstration farms,
farmer’s field or home.
• It can be used to the show results achieved with mini-kits or method
demonstration plots laid down by selected farmers to the community.
Procedure Planning for preparation
• Decide about the practice, the location, date, time and the participants.
• Contact Subject Matter Specialists and fellow extension agents serving in
surrounding areas to ensure participation.
• Arrange a meeting place close to the location where the practice has been
applied.
• Make a written program identifying the activities and responsibilities of
suitable persons
• Involve the farmers and youth to assist in the preparations at all stages from
programming to preparation of displays including charts, exhibits, diagrams,
etc., and in organizing and decorating the site.
• Collect relevant publications and prepare a handout for the occasion.
• Arrange public address system, required materials and equipment, vehicles,
etc.
• Inform invitees, farmers and, depending on the scale of the event, mass
media personnel.
• Make arrangement to register participants.

Implementation
• Welcome the participants on arrival, assemble them to meeting place and
register attendance.
• Start the meeting at scheduled time giving a brief introduction on the
purpose of the field day and how the group should move.
• Station capable Subject Matter Specialist or Extension Agents to man each
important point and explain the practice and answer farmers’ questions. If a
demonstrating farmer is involved, he should also play an active role, and may
be assisted by the Subject Matter Officers.
• On completion of the field visit, invite all participants to the meeting place
and distribute publications or handouts.
• A short time may be allotted to formal addresses followed by emphasizing of
important points of the practice again.
• Invite few participants to present their observations and answer the
questions that may be raised.
• End the meeting by thanking the participants for their attendance and the
people who have helped in various ways.

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 Follow-up
• Maintain contact with the participants to keep their interest and promote
adoption of the practice
• Reinforce learning about the practice through use of mass media
Advantages • The method gives the participants to visually observe the benefits that can be
gained by application of the practice.
• Helps the farmers to socialize and to acquaint themselves with outside
persons like Subject Matter Specialists.
• Builds confidence of demonstrating farmers to continue with the practice
and help in the extension effort to spread its wider application in the farming
community.
Limitations • Field days cannot be held frequently
• Does not facilitate in-depth learning
Tips If the number of participants is large, they can be divided into small groups of
say 5– 10 each.
Each group can visit the field in rotation according to pre-arranged time
schedule thereby all participants get the opportunity to make full use of the
field day.

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Tool 12: Guidelines for Farmers Field School (FFS)
Farmer field schools
Description FFS is a season-long group-based training/learning program conducted in a
designated field, where farmers carry out experimental learning activities
that help them to understand the ecology of their farms through simple
experiments, regular field observations and group analysis. The method has
been used mainly for Integrated Pest and Crop Management (IPCM)
programs, but may well adopted to other farming systems, e.g., soil and
water, animal production and health, plant production, etc.
Objective To enable participating farmers to make their own locally specified decisions
about crop management practices.
• To transfer part of the Government cost on extension to the community
Situation • When mass mobilization of the farming community is required for a change
in the
currently operating farming systems
Procedure Planning and preparation
• Select suitable locations to establish the FFSs. It is better if the selected
sites are close to the location of Extension Agent or the Facilitator.
• Discuss and finalize the terms and conditions with the owner farmer, on
compensation, logistics, etc., and maintain proper communication channels.
• Carry out a baseline assessment.
• Select participating farmers who are interested, motivated, ready to learn,
cooperative, full-time farmers growing the FFS crop for the FFS.
• Form farmer groups for FFS by gathering participants from a similar crop
production background.
• Plan and conduct an introductory meeting to each group to explain
objectives, benefits, farmer contribution (e.g., time and labor), distinctiveness
of the system, and meeting schedules of FFS. Involve SMSs and relevant
outside organizations.
• Register the willing group members
• Design the FFS curriculum through a study of problem identification and
needs assessment to stating objectives, field activities and learning subjects
of FFS.
• Prepare meeting schedules and detailed activity plans
• Procure materials and stationery including forms for data collections, etc. in
time.
• Prepare FFS budget

Implementation (the procedures will vary with the program and crop)
• Conduct the meetings and field activities as scheduled. Invite resource
persons as and when required.
• Facilitate farmers to carry out field observation and sampling, charting the
development of the crop, grouping the field data, analyzing the agro-
ecosystem and present the results for discussion.
• Take care of the administrative obligations and maintain constructive
communication with local authorities, NGOs and other organizations in the
area.
• Evaluate the FFS during the season for training quality
• Evaluate the FFS at the end of FFS training – Impact evaluation

Follow-up

29
 • Set up farmer studies by providing specific training on field study skills to
promote continuation by themselves independently
• Support farmer-to farmer extension by graduates of FFS offering to training
to new groups
• Encourage the trained group to repeat activity on a different crop.
Advantages • Provide means to develop expertise among farmers in a farmers community
and thereby promote good management practices and possible increase in
profits
• Provide opportunities for farmer work group formation for related activities
such as marketing (Global GAP) and community action on related topics.
• Provides an opportunity to integrate farmers’ knowledge and experiences
into the program through experimentation in FFS fields without personal
risks.
• The basic knowledge acquired through FFS makes trainees better clients for
research and extension systems as they have more scientific questions and
demands,
Limitations Assumes that the Extension Agent possesses all the required skills in growing
of the crop selected for FFS.
• This makes it necessary to train Extension Agents or the Facilitators in
‘Farmer
Respect Course’ for at least one full season before commencement of FFS.
• Finding a suitable FFS plot may not always possible due to reluctance of the
land
owner farmers (it differs from ‘traditional demonstration’ plots)
• Cost per trained farmer is high.
Tips Farmer participation can be improved by selecting locations where a wide
gap exist between the current practice and the expected result of FFS.
Clustering of the FFSs is considered more advantageous than spreading as the
former creates a critical mass for better interaction and strengthening farmer
networks. It is more likely that full-time farmers will have a greater interest in
FFS participation than those who are part-time farmers. Promote
independent establishment of farmer associations and assist in writing
proposals and requests for local funding.

30
Tool 13: Sample job description of agricultural extension (AE) workers
The AE is the primary partner of the farmers’ groups at community level. He/she interacts regularly (weekly
and on needs) with the farmers and assumes all extension functions. The AE has to perform the following jobs
(job description):

• Identify and form farmer groups

• Mobilize farmers in implementing their agriculture activity effectively
• Assist farmers to realize their regular meetings
• Assist farmers by providing information about agriculture techniques appropriate to the local
condition, inputs availability, and credits and marketing
• Assist farmers in formulation of seasonal cultivation and annual needs
• Prepare work schedule or extension events in coordination with SEC
• Conduct plot demonstration (Demo Plot) to stimulate farmer to adopt agricultural
technology and arrange Farmer Field Days with farmer groups
• Identify and predict pests or disease that may affect crop, livestock and fish, and provide
means to stop or control with the assistance of SMS.
• Participate with SMS or Researchers to establish on-farm adaptive trials and collect relevant
data for analysis
• Assist farmers to diagnose farming related problems and propose appropriate solutions
• Coordinate with community leader and development agencies in rural area to ensure
successful implementation of programs
• Undertake data collection at village level, such as number of household, hectares, production
volume etc.
• Elaborate operational plan for extension activity and monthly report
• Undertake any tasks as may be assigned.

31
Tool 14: Developing an agricultural extension program (an example)
Problem Local shortage of staple food.
Potential Some local farmers have increased maize yields by
30-40 percent by using improved seed and animal manure
most farmers have plenty of manure but do not use it.
Solutions A Increase size of small farms and introduce labour-saving
techniques
- not feasible: no access to additional land.
B Encourage larger, mechanized farms to grow more
food crops
- not acceptable: poorer farm families could not
buy the food.
C Enable smaller farmers to increase yields
- feasible, using better varieties and tested husbandry
improvements.
Preferred solution C
Objective Raise yields by 30 percent on 20 percent of the farms in
the area in the first year.
Intermediate 50 percent of farmers will learn of the benefits, and will
objectives acquire the skill, of using manure.
50 percent of farmers will learn the benefits of new varieties.
20 percent of farmers will plant improved varieties.
Plan of work - Establish demonstration plots on ten farms.
- Hold public meetings and film shows in ten villages to
show the benefits of new varieties and improved
husbandry.
- Hold method demonstrations of manuring and correct
spacing at the appropriate times.
- Visit farms during planting season.
- Hold result demonstrations on selected plots to
encourage more farmers to try the new varieties and
practices next year.
Support needed - Subject-matter specialist to speak at public meetings,
attend demonstrations and answer farmers' questions.
- Adequate supplies of seeds, at the right time, at local
stores.
- Farm broadcasts to include relevant items at the
appropriate time of year.

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Tool 15: Extension officer’s annual report (an example)
Name of extension Mr. John Bob
officer/agent
Field of extension Vegetables and fruits
Reporting period 2018-2019
Summary of work done During this year, I had 15 demonstration plots (10 on fruits and 5
on vegetables) in Pohnpei. I also conducted 10 trainings for
farmers.
Objective of extension To demonstrate new techniques regarding vegetable
activities in XXX year. intercropping, row cultivation and comparing organic manure vs.
(Why you want to have this NPK.
extension method?)
Material and methods 5 demonstration plots on vegetable fertilizer application using
(How is the demonstration compost and NPK in the farmers’ field and in the ministry research
done?) facility.

10 demonstration plots on vegetables row cultivation to see if the

yield will increase. In addition, we demonstrated that row
cultivation can minimize weeds and pests.

10 on-the-field training, farm visits and in class training for farmers

were delivered on fruit cultivation, propagation methods, pruning,
grafting and harvesting.
Results and discussion 5 demonstration plots fertilizer application data was collected
(What worked and what through 15 visits to the farmer fields. In addition, farmer also
didn’t?) collected data based on their observation from the field. The
results show that compost was not very different then the
commercial fertilizer. Therefore, we recommend increasing the
number of composing activity for next year.

The demonstration plots on vegetables were also good. However,

during the 2nd quarter of the year, I was busy on overseas training,
I could not collect the data. The farmer didn’t know how to collect
data so we don’t have full data. But still the final harvest data is
available and show better results then broadcast method and
relatively less pest and weeds were easily controlled.

During this year, I trained 100 farmers through 10 trainings. The

farmers expect more follow on training at higher capacity.
Challenges Limited transportation, farmers are very busy with church,
cyclone.
Recommendation I request the following for next year:
Improve transportation for extension officer
Provide composting material + training for more farmers

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References and further information
Agricultural Support Assist Project. 2008. Agriculture extension methodology: A reference manual.
Japan International Cooperation Agency .

Dia, L., Sablah, M., & Bendech, M. 2017. Integration of Nutrition in agriculture extension services in
Africa. FAO. Accra, Ghana.

FAO. 2017. What role can Agricultural Extension and Advisory Services play in realizing gender
equality and improved nutrition?: Summary of Online discussion No:141. Rome.

L. Blum, M. 2007. Trends and Challenges in Agricultural Extension –Policies and Strategies for
Reform. FAO. Also available at http://www.fao.org/nr/res/wshops/docs/presentation2.pdf

Ministry of Agriculture. 1999. Agriculture extension manual. Government of Bangladesh.

Ministry of Agriculture and food security. 2006. The district agriculture extension system:
Implementation guide. Malawi: Government of Malawi.

Oakley, P., & Garforth, C. 1985. Guide to extension training. FAO, Rome.

Qamar, M. 2005. Modernizing national agricultural extension system: a practical guide to policy
makers of developing countries. FAO. Rome.

Rivera, W., & Qamar , M. 2003. Agriculture Extension, rural development and the food secuirty
challenge. FAO. Rome.

Rivera, W., Qamar, M., & Crowder, L. 2001. Agriculture and rural extension worldwide: options for
institutional reform in the developing countries. FAO. Rome

Swanson, B., & Rajalahti, R. 2010. Strengthening Agricultural Extension and Advisory Systems:
Procedures for Assessing, Transforming, and Evaluating Extension Systems. World Bank.
Washington D.C.

Swanson, B., Bentz, R., & Sofranko, A. 1998. Improving agricultural extension: A reference manual.
FAO. Rome.

University of Sunshine Coast. (n.d.). Pacific examples of good extension practices: Pacific Islands
Extension Strategy Consultancy Report to SPC. Also available at
https://pafpnet.spc.int/attachments/article/514/Pacific%20Islands%20Extension%20Strateg
y%20Consultancy%20Report%20to%20SPC.pdf

Wesley, A., & Faminow, M. 2014. Research and development and extension services in agriculture
and food security. ADB.

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CONTACT

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)

Sub Regional Office for the Pacific (SAP)
CA5007EN/1/08.19

UN Compound, Lauofo Meti's Building, Matautu-Uta

Apia – Samoa
Tel: (+685) 221226
mail: SAP-SRC@fao.org