EARTH MATERIALS I.

Clastic Sedimentary Rocks

 Formed from mechanical weathering debris
Classification of Rocks  “clastic” means broken into pieces
1. Igneous Rocks –  Ex. Conglomerate, Breccia, Sandstone, Siltstone,
 are formed when magma ( molten rock deep within Shale, Mustone
the earth)cools and hardens.
 “ignis” means fire
 when magma erupts onto the surface from
volcanoes it is called lava.
o When it cools very quickly, no crystal form
and the rock looks shiny and glasslike. Ex.
Obsidian
o When gas bubbles are trapped during the II. Chemical Sedimentary Rocks
cooling process, leaving tiny holes and  Form when dissolved materials precipitate from
spaces in the rock. Ex. Basalt solution
 Ex. Coal, Chert

I. Intrusive Igneous Rocks

 Crystallize below Earth’s surface III. Organic Sedimentary Rocks
 Slow cooling that occurs there allows large crystal  Form from the accumulation of plant or animal
to form debris
 Ex. Gabbro, Diorite, Granodiorite, Granite  Ex. Limestone, Dolostoone

II. Extrusive Igneous Rocks 3. Metamorphic Rocks

 Rocks erupt onto the surface  have been modified by heat, pressure, and chemical
 They cool very quickly and they form small crystals processes, usually while buried deep below the
 Ex. Basalt, Andesite, Dacite, Rhyolite Earth's surface.
 “meta” means change ; “morphe” means form

2. Sedimentary Rocks
 are types of rock that are formed by the deposition I. Non-Foliated Metamorphic Rocks
and subsequent cementation of that material at the  Do not have a layered or banded appearance
Earth’s surface and within bodies of water.  Ex. Quarzite, Marble
 “sedimentum” means settling
 are deposited in layers as strata, forming a
structure called bedding.

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 II. Foliated Metamorphic Rocks
 Have a layered or banded appearance that is
produced by exposure to heat and directed pressure
 Ex. Slate, Schist, Gneiss

3.2 Agents of Metamorphism

I. Pressure
 Include the weight of overlying rocks deep in the
earth
 Shear pressure in the fault zones can
metamorphose rocks at shallower depths Rock Cycle
 Folded over and over to create layers  The main idea is that rocks are continually changing from one
type to another and back again, so the elements that make up
II. Heat rocks are never created or destroyed — instead, they are
 Range temperatures at which metamorphic activity constantly being recycled
takes place between 148 and 798 degrees Celsius.  Forces inside the earth bring them closer to the surface (
 Heat sources: magma, geothermal heat, and friction uplift ) and some forces on the earth sink them back down
along faults.  The useful way to illustrate how three main types of rock are
related to one another and how changes to rocks happen in a
III. Hydrothermal Solutions recurring sequence is the rock cycle.
 Chemical activity caused by water at higher  James Hutton (1726-1797), 18th century founder of modern
temperature and pressures. geology
 Dissolve pre-existing rocks, to transport dissolved
materials and to catalyze chemical changes.
#1 Earth’s Mantle Continents

1. Mantle – were molten rocks are found

2. Magma – ( melting above subduction zones ) they will be push
upward
a. And if it happens to cool ( cooling crystallization )
they become Intrusive Igneous Rocks
b. But if they cooled after volcanic eruption ( eruption
cooling ) they will become Extrusive Igneous Rocks
3. Extrusive Igneous Rocks undergo uplift; weathering and
erosion they could become Sediments.
a. They can transport to the oceans.
b. They can go transport, deposition, burial,
compaction and cementation they will be called
Sedimentary Rocks.
4. Sedimentary Rocks they will undergo to deep burial, heat,
and pressure they will be called Metamorphic Rocks.
a. They can melt (melting )as they go near at the
magma and become one of it.
b. They can go subduction and be part of earth’s
mantle.

#2 Earth’s Mantle Oceans (3A)

1. Extrusive Igneous Rocks undergo by he process of transport

into the bodies of water.
a. And will undergo in compaction and cementation
and become Sedimentary Rocks
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 2. Sedimentary Rocks
a. Can be buried ( burial ) and become Metamorphic
Rocks ( 1: 4 )
b. They could also be undergo to subduction and Rock
metamorphosi ; where they could be melted (  Hard material of the earth’s crust
melting ) in the mid-ocean ridges and become part  Normally exposed on the surface of the earth or sometimes
of the magma. underlying the soil
3. New Magma
a. They can be expelled through underwater volcano
or eruption and cooling they be called Extrusive Stone
Rocks  Is a solid non-metallic mineral matter of which a rock is
b. And in cooling crystallization and become Intrusive made.
Rocks  In fact, it can be said that stones constitute what is called a
c. 2B rock

Rock
 Naturally occurring aggregate of minerals and/or
mineraloids.
 They don’t have a definite chemical composition

Mineral
 Is naturally-occurring substance formed through geological
process that has a characteristics chemical composition, a
highly ordered atomic structure and specific physical
properties.

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 EARTH PROCESSES  It is the breaking up of large rocks physically
without changing the rock’s mineral
Geomorphic Processes
composition.
 It is physical processes which create and modify landforms  Ex. Frost Action—mechanical force is exerted
on the surface of the Earth. It could be exogenic ( external )or on the rocks by freezing water in the rock
endogenic ( internal ) pores.
 Geomorphology –Studies the landforms that pattern Earth’s
 Ex. Exfoliation--removal of upper layers
surface and the processes that shape them.
because of variety of temperature.
 Ex. Biotic Factors—the root system of plants
grow in the cracks

II. Chemical Weathering

 It decomposes the rocks through chemical
change as chemical reactions alter them into
new substance.
 Ex. Solution – many minerals dissolve in water
forming weak acids which in turn dissolve rock
minerals like carbonates.
 Ex. Oxidation – the reaction of oxygen in air or
water with minerals in the rocks, causes
rusting.

III. Biological Weathering

 is the weakening and subsequent
disintegration of rock by plants, animals, and
microbes. (growing plant roots)
 Ex. Roots – physically break or wedge rock
 Ex. Lichens-- (algae and fungi living as single
unit) by realizing acids
 Ex. Burrowing animals—can increase
Exogenic Processes (external origin) weathering (like worms)

 They are driven by the energy in sunlight. The reason is that 2. Erosion
the sunlight causes air to move, water to be lifted into
 The movement of sediments or soil from one
mountains, and ocean waves to rise.
location to another by means of water, ice or wind.
 Land wearing forces.
 Exogenic forces are “mountain destroying” processes.

3. Deposition
Denudation  Geological process in which sediments, soil and
 Denudation is the name for the processes of erosion, rocks are added to landform or land mass.
leaching, stripping, and reducing the mainland due to the  Transport previously eroded sediment.
removal of material from higher to lower areas like valleys,  When particles carried by water, ice or wind are
river valleys, etc. with a permanent filling of low lands. deposited or dropped in another location.

1. Weathering
 Is the break down and loosens the surface minerals of
rock so they can be transported away by agents of
erosion such as water, wind, and ice.
 Water, ice, acids, salts, plants, animals and changes in
temperature are all agents of weathering.

I. Physical Weathering

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  Conduction transfers heat via direct (contact) molecular
collision.
 Convection is a transfer of heat (via indirect contact) by
mixing a fluid and occurs within liquids and gases.
 Advection the transfer of heat or matter by the flow of a
fluid, especially horizontally in the atmosphere or the sea.

Endogenic Processes (internal origin)

 Processes that are driven by the internal heat of the Earth,
which in turn results from the radioactive decay of elements
deep beneath the surface.
Radiogenic Heat
 Endogenic forces are “mountain building” processes. or land
building forces  Radioactive decay of elements in the Earth’s mantle and crust
 The heat bubbles upward providing a huge driving force that results in production of daughter isotopes and release of
bends, cracks, lifts and moves Earth’s rigid outer layer. particles and heat energy
 This energy is mostly generated by primordial heat and  Radioactive isotopes ; Uranium -238; uranium -235; uranium
radiogenic heat -232; thorium -232 and potassium -40.
Primordial Heat

 Is the heat lost by the Earth as it continues to cool from its

original formation, and this is in contrast to its still actively-
produced radiogenic heat.
 Earth core’s heat flow—heat leaving core to overlying
mantle- estimated at 5-15 TW, estimates of mantle heat loss
range 7 and 15 TW.

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  Older rocks will be found farther away from the spreading
zone while younger rocks will be found nearer to the
spreading zone.
PLATE TECTONICS

Plates & Boundaries

 Earth’s continents are constantly moving due to the

motions of the tectonic plates.

Diastrophism ( slow movements )

 “dia” means across ; “strophe” means turn

 This forces are generates by the movement of the solid
materials of the earth’s crust.
 It can be classified as horizontal movement (orogenic) and
vertical movements ( epeirogenic)  The border between two tectonic plates is called boundary.

Diastrophism: Orogenic Processes 1. Convergent Boundary

 “oros” means mountain ; “genesis” means origin  Occurs where two plates are pushing toward
 Refers to forces and events leading to a large structural each other.
deformation of the earth’s lithosphere  Ex. Eurasian Plate and Indian Plate forming
 Due to interaction between tectonic plates. Himalayan Mountain Range
 Involving mountain building through severe folding and
affecting long and narrow belts of the earth’s crust.

Continental Drift Theory

 Alfred Wegener (1880-1930) I. Ocean-Ocean
 that explained how continents shift position on Earth's  Ocean plate dives
surface. beneath another
 also explained why look-alike animal and plant fossils, and ocean plate.
similar rock formations, are found on different continents.  Form underwater volcano
o Glacial evidence
II. Ocean-Continent
Concept of Seafloor Spreading  Ocean plate dives
 Harry Hess ( 1906-1969 ) beneath continental
 is a geologic process in which tectonic plates—large slabs plate.
of Earth's lithosphere—split apart from each other  Form inland

III. Continent-Continent
 Continental crust
collide with another
continental crust
 Form high mountains

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 2. Divergent Boundary 2. Forces of Tension ( fault mountain )
 marks two plates that are moving apart from  Work horizontally, but in opposite directions
each other.  The rock stratum gets broken or fractured which results in
faulting.

3. Transform Boundary
 occurs where two plates slide past each other.

- OROGENIC PROCESSES ( MOUNTAIN BUILDING ) I EPEIROGENIC PROCESSES( CONTINENTAL BUILDING )

 “epeiros” means land ; genesis means birth
1. Forces of Compression (fold mountains)  Responsible for creating land masses
 which push rock starta against a hard plane from one side or  Broad central parts of continents are called cratons.
both sides.
 Leading to the bending of rock layers and thus lead to the 1. UPWARD (emergence)
formation FOLD MOUNTAINS.
 two tectonic plates move together at a convergent plate I. Raised Beaches
boundary.  Elevated wave-cut
terraces, sea caves and
fossils bed above sea
level are evidences of
uplift.
II. Gradation
 Is a process whereby the
surface of the and is
reduced to an even plain

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2. DOWNWARD (SUBMERGE)

I. Submerged Forest
 Remains of trees that lie
submerged beneath the sea

II. Ria
 Coastal intel, partial
submergence of an river
valley
 Tree like pattern or outline

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 VOLCANISM AND EARTQUAKES

2. Earthquakes
 Observable shaking of the earth’s surface or rupture of
geological faults creating seismic waves
 It actual point of initial rupture is called focus or hypocenter.
 Epicenter ground level above the focus.

SUDDEN MOVEMENTS

 Are result of long period preparation deep within the earth

 Constructive forces because they create certain relief
features on the earth’s surface
 Can become disastrous when they occurs in densely
populated localities.

1. Volcanism
 An opening in the earth’s crust through gases,
molten rocks materials (lava) are emitted outward
as well as the pyroclastic
 Can result intrusive and extrusive volcanic forms
(igneous rocks)

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 2. Eras
 Eons are divided into smaller time intervals known as eras.
HISTORY OF THE EARTH RBJD │11B
In the time scale above you can see that the Phanerozoic is
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yHos7xw_M4s&list=PLZSUDXeyUa divided into three eras: Cenozoic, Mesozoic and Paleozoic.
2HSSYXVbi-McJQVjgwSxvfb&index=7 Very significant events in Earth's history are used to
determine the boundaries of the eras.
 It concerns the development of
the planet Earth from its 3. Periods
formation to the present day.  Eras are subdivided into periods. The events that bound the
 The age of Earth is periods are widespread in their extent but are not as
approximately one-third of the significant as those which bound the eras. In the time scale
age of the universe. above you can see that the Paleozoic is subdivided into the
 Geological change has Permian, Pennsylvanian, Mississippian, Devonian, Silurian,
occurred in that timespan Ordovician and Cambrian periods.
accompanied by biological
change. 4. Epochs
 Finer subdivisions of time are possible, and the periods of the
Cenozoic are frequently subdivided into epochs. Subdivision
of periods into epochs can be done only for the most recent
The Geological Time Scale portion of the geologic time scale. This is because older rocks
have been buried deeply, intensely deformed and severely
 the extensive interval of time occupied by the geologic history modified by long-term earth processes. As a result, the
of Earth. Formal geologic time begins at the start of the history contained within these rocks cannot be as clearly
Archean Eon (4.0 billion to 2.5 billion years ago) and interpreted.
continues to the present day.
 It was term Geologic, since it mostly it refers to the events on
the earth’s surface transformation together with the Turning Points in Earth's History
evolution of living things. http://www.bbc.com/earth/bespoke/story/20150123-earths-25-
biggest-turning-points/

The Future of the Earth

 The biological and geological future of the earth can be

extrapolated based upon the estimated effects of several
long term influences.
 An uncertain factor in this extrapolation is the ongoing
influence of technology introduced by humans, such as
climate engineering, which could cause significant changes
to the planet.

3:09 For Explanation

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yHos7xw_M4s&list=PLZSUD
XeyUa2HSSYXVbi-McJQVjgwSxvfb&index=7

1. Eons
 Eons are the largest intervals of geologic time and are
hundreds of millions of years in duration. In the time scale
above you can see the Phanerozoic Eon is the most recent
eon and began more than 500 million years ago.

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