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F. A. Davis Company
1915 Arch Street
Philadelphia, PA 19103
www.fadavis.com

Copyright © 2022 by F. A. Davis Company

Copyright © 1985, 1988, 1991, 1993, 1996, 1998, 2000, 2002, 2004, 2006, 2008, 2010, 2013, 2016, 2019 by F. A. Davis
Company. All rights reserved. This book is protected by copyright. No part of it may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without
written permission from the publisher.

Printed in the United States of America

Last digit indicates print number: 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Acquisitions Editor: Jacalyn Sharp
Senior Content Project Manager: Amy M. Romano
Design and Illustration Manager: Carolyn O’Brien

As new scientific information becomes available through basic and clinical research, recommended treatments and drug
therapies undergo changes. The author(s) and publisher have done everything possible to make this book accurate, up to
date, and in accordance with accepted standards at the time of publication. The author(s), editors, and publisher are not
responsible for errors or omissions or for consequences from application of the book and make no warranty, expressed or
implied, in regard to the contents of the book. Any practice described in this book should be applied by the reader in
accordance with professional standards of care used in regard to the unique circumstances that may apply in each situation.
The reader is advised always to check product information (package inserts) for changes and new information regarding
dose and contraindications before administering any drug. Caution is especially urged when using new or infrequently
ordered drugs.

Library of Congress Control Number: 2018967079

Authorization to photocopy items for internal or personal use, or the internal or personal use of specific clients, is granted by
F. A. Davis Company for users registered with the Copyright Clearance Center (CCC) Transactional Reporting Service,
provided that the fee of $.25 per copy is paid directly to CCC, 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923. For those
organizations that have been granted a photocopy license by CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged. The fee
code for users of the Transactional Reporting Service is: 978-1-7196-4307-8/22 0 + $.25.

Herdman, TH, Kamitsuru, S, Takáo Lopes, C (eds): Nursing Diagnoses—Definitions and Classification 2021–2023.
Copyright © 2021, 1994–2021 NANDA International. Used by arrangement with Thieme. In order to make safe and
effective judgments using NANDA-I nursing diagnoses, it is essential that nurses refer to the definitions and defining
characteristics of the diagnoses listed in this work.
DEDICATION

This book is dedicated to:

Our families, who helped with the mundane activities of daily living that allowed us to write this book and who provide
us with love and encouragement in all our endeavors.
Our friends, who support us in our writing, put up with our memory lapses, and love us still.
Bob Martone, former Publisher, Nursing, who germinated the idea for this project so long ago. Jacalyn Sharp and Amy
Romano, who have taken on the challenge of providing direct support and keeping us focused. Robert Allen, who has
guided us through the XML maze since the book went high tech and is a lifeline we greatly appreciate. The F. A. Davis
production staff, who coordinated and expedited the project through the editing and printing processes, meeting unreal
deadlines, and sending pages to us with bated breath.
Robert H. Craven, Jr., and the F. A. Davis family.
And last and most important:
The nurses we are writing for, to those who have found the previous editions of the Pocket Guide helpful, and to other
nurses who are looking for help to provide quality nursing care in a period of transition and change, we say, “Nursing
Diagnosis is the way.”
CONTRIBUTORS

Our heartfelt thanks to our collaborators. Your contributions made everything easier
for us.

Christina Baughn, DNP, RN, CNE

Assistant Professor, Adult Health Nursing
University of South Alabama College of Nursing
Fairhope, Alabama

Margaret Moore-Nadler, DNP, RN

Associate Professor, Community Mental Health
University of South Alabama College of Nursing
Mobile, Alabama

Linda R. Renberg, BA
Instructor, English, Music, and Education (ret.)
Research Assistant
Mitchell, South Dakota
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

A special acknowledgment to Marilynn’s friend, the late Diane Camillone, who provoked an
awareness of the role of the patient and continues to influence our thoughts about the
importance of quality nursing care, and to our late colleague, Mary Jeffries, who started us on
this journey and introduced us to nursing diagnoses.
To our colleagues in NANDA International, who continue to formulate and refine nursing
diagnoses to provide nursing with the tools to enhance and promote the growth of the
profession.
Marilynn E. Doenges
Mary Frances Moorhouse
Alice C. Murr
CONTENTS

Health Conditions and Client Concerns With Associated Nursing Diagnoses appear on
pages 1087–1228.

How to Use the Nurse’s Pocket Guide

Nursing Diagnoses Accepted for Use and Research (2021–2023)

CHAPTER 1
The Nursing Process and Planning Client Care

CHAPTER 2
Nursing Diagnoses in Alphabetical Order
For each nursing diagnosis, the following information is provided:
Diagnostic Division
Definition
Related/Risk Factors
Defining Characteristics: Subjective/Objective
Desired Outcomes/Evaluation Criteria
Actions/Interventions
Nursing Priorities
Documentation Focus
Sample Nursing Outcomes & Nursing Interventions Classifications (NOC/NIC)

CHAPTER 3
Health Conditions and Client Concerns With Associated Nursing Diagnoses

APPENDIX 1
Tools for Choosing Nursing Diagnoses

SECTION 1
Adult Medical/Surgical Assessment Tool

SECTION 2
Diagnostic Divisions: Nursing Diagnoses Organized According to a Nursing
Focus

APPENDIX 2

SECTION 1
 Client Situation and Prototype Plan of Care
Plan of Care for Client With Diabetes Mellitus

SECTION 2
Another Approach to Planning Client Care—Mind or Concept Mapping
Bibliography (See FADavis.com)
Index
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HOW TO USE THE NURSE’S POCKET GUIDE

The American Nurses Association (ANA) Social Policy Statement of 1980 was the first to
define nursing as the diagnosis and treatment of human responses to actual and potential
health problems. This definition, when combined with the ANA Standards of Practice,
provided impetus and support for the use of nursing diagnosis. Defining nursing and its effect
on client care supports the growing awareness that nursing care is a key factor in client
survival and in the maintenance, rehabilitative, and preventive aspects of healthcare. Changes
and new developments in healthcare delivery in the past 40 years have given rise to the need
for a common framework of communication to ensure continuity of care for the client
moving between multiple healthcare settings and providers. Evaluation and documentation of
care are important parts of this process.
This book is designed to aid the practitioner and student nurse in identifying interventions
commonly associated with specific nursing diagnoses as proposed by NANDA International
(NANDA-I). These interventions are the activities needed to implement and document care
provided to the individual client and can be used in varied settings from acute to
community/home care.
Chapter 1 presents a brief discussion of the nursing process, data collection, and care plan
construction. Appendix 1 contains tools for choosing nursing diagnoses—an Adult
Assessment Tool and the Diagnostic Divisions list. Appendix 2 puts theory into practice with
a sample assessment database and a corresponding plan of care. A mind or concept map is
also provided. For more in-depth information and inclusive plans of care related to specific
medical or psychiatric conditions and maternal/newborn care (with rationale and the
application of the diagnoses), the nurse is referred to the larger work, published by the F. A.
Davis Company: Nursing Care Plans: Guidelines for Individualizing Client Care Across the
Life Span, ed. 10 (Doenges, Moorhouse, & Murr, 2019). For nursing diagnoses and
interventions with evidence-based citations, refer to the more in-depth work published by the
F. A. Davis Company: Nursing Diagnosis Manual: Planning, Individualizing, and
Documenting Client Care, ed. 7 (Doenges, Moorhouse, & Murr, 2022).
Nursing diagnoses are listed alphabetically in Chapter 2 for ease of reference and include
the diagnoses accepted for use by NANDA-I through 2021–2023. Each diagnosis approved
for testing includes its definition and information divided into the NANDA-I categories of
Related or Risk Factors and Defining Characteristics. Related/Risk Factors information
reflects causative or contributing factors that can be useful for determining whether the
diagnosis is applicable to a particular client. Defining Characteristics (signs and symptoms or
cues) are listed as subjective and/or objective and are used to confirm problem-focused
diagnoses or readiness for enhanced diagnoses, aid in formulating outcomes, and provide
additional data for choosing appropriate interventions. The authors have not deleted or
altered NANDA-I’s listings; however, on occasion, they have added to their definitions or
suggested additional criteria to provide clarification and direction. These additions are
denoted with brackets [ ].
The ANA, in conjunction with NANDA-I, proposed that specific nursing diagnoses
currently approved and structured according to Taxonomy II Revised be included in the
International Classification of Diseases (ICD) within the section “Family of Health-Related
Classifications.” Although the World Health Organization did not accept this initial proposal
because of lack of documentation of the usefulness of nursing diagnoses at the international
level, the NANDA-I list has been accepted by SNOMED (Systemized Nomenclature of
Medicine) for inclusion in its international coding system and is included in the Unified
Medical Language System of the National Library of Medicine. Today, nurse researchers
from around the world have submitted new nursing diagnoses and are validating current
diagnoses in support for resubmission and acceptance of the NANDA-I list in future editions
of the ICD.
The authors have chosen to categorize the list of nursing diagnoses approved for clinical
use and testing into Diagnostic Divisions, which is the framework for an assessment tool
(Appendix 1) designed to assist the nurse to readily identify an appropriate nursing diagnosis
from data collected during the assessment process. The Diagnostic Division label is listed
under each nursing diagnosis heading.
Desired Outcomes/Evaluation Criteria are identified to assist the nurse in formulating
individual client outcomes and to support the evaluation process.
Interventions in this pocket guide are primarily directed to adult care settings (although
general age-span considerations are included) and are listed according to nursing priorities.
Some interventions require collaborative or interdependent orders (e.g., medical, psychiatric),
and the nurse will need to determine when this is necessary and take appropriate action.
The inclusion of Documentation Focus suggestions is to remind the nurse of the
importance and necessity of recording the steps of the nursing process.
Finally, in recognition of the ongoing work of numerous researchers over the past 35 years,
the authors have referenced the Nursing Interventions and Outcomes labels developed by the
Iowa Intervention Projects (Bulechek, Butcher, & Dochterman; Moorhead, Johnson, Mass, &
Swanson). These groups have been classifying nursing interventions and outcomes to predict
resource requirements and measure outcomes, thereby meeting the needs of a standardized
language that can be coded for computer and reimbursement purposes. As an introduction to
this work in progress, sample NIC and NOC labels have been included under the heading
Sample Nursing Interventions & Outcomes Classifications at the conclusion of each nursing
diagnosis section. The reader is referred to the various publications by Joanne C. Dochterman
and Marion Johnson for more in-depth information.
Chapter 2 presents more than 400 disorders/health conditions reflecting all specialty areas,
with associated nursing diagnoses written as client diagnostic statements that include the
“related to” and “evidenced by” components as appropriate. This section will facilitate and
help validate the assessment and problem or need identification steps of the nursing process.
As noted, with few exceptions, we have presented NANDA-I’s recommendations as
formulated. We support the belief that practicing nurses and researchers need to study, use,
and evaluate the diagnoses as presented. Nurses can be creative as they use the standardized
language, redefining and sharing information as the diagnoses are used with individual
clients. As new nursing diagnoses are developed, it is important that the data they encompass
are added to assessment tools and current databases. As part of the process by clinicians,
educators, and researchers across practice specialties and academic settings to define, test,
and refine nursing diagnosis, nurses are encouraged to share insights and ideas with
NANDA-I online at http://www.nanda.org or at the following address: NANDA
International, PO Box 72, Mountain, WI 54149.
NURSING DIAGNOSES ACCEPTED FOR USE AND
RESEARCH (2021–2023)

Activity Planning, ineffective

Activity Planning, risk for ineffective
*Activity Tolerance, decreased
*Activity Tolerance, decreased
Acute Substance Withdrawal Syndrome
Acute Substance Withdrawal Syndrome, risk for
Adverse Reaction to Iodinated Contrast Media, risk for
Airway Clearance, ineffective
Allergy Reaction, risk for
Anxiety [specify level]
Aspiration, risk for
Attachment, risk for impaired
Autonomic Dysreflexia
Autonomic Dysreflexia, risk for

Behavior, disorganized infant

Behavior, readiness for enhanced organized infant
Behavior, risk for disorganized infant
Bleeding, risk for
Blood Glucose Level, risk for unstable
Blood Pressure, risk for unstable
Body Image, disturbed
Breast Milk Production, insufficient
Breastfeeding, ineffective
Breastfeeding, interrupted
Breastfeeding, readiness for enhanced
Breathing Pattern, ineffective

Cardiac Output, decreased

Cardiac Output, risk for decreased
+Cardiovascular Function, risk for impaired
Childbearing Process, ineffective
Childbearing Process, readiness for enhanced
Childbearing Process, risk for ineffective
Chronic Pain Syndrome
Comfort, impaired
Comfort, readiness for enhanced
Communication, impaired verbal
Communication, readiness for enhanced
Confusion, acute
Confusion, chronic
Confusion, risk for acute
Constipation
Constipation, chronic functional
Constipation, perceived
Constipation, risk for
Constipation, risk for chronic functional
Contamination
*Continence, impaired bowel
Contamination, risk for
Coping, compromised family
Coping, defensive
Coping, disabled family
Coping, ineffective
Coping, ineffective community
Coping, readiness for enhanced
Coping, readiness for enhanced community
Coping, readiness for enhanced family

Death Anxiety
Decision-Making, readiness for enhanced
Decisional Conflict
Denial, ineffective
Dentition, impaired
+Development, delayed child
+ Development, risk for delayed child
Diarrhea
Disuse Syndrome, risk for
+Disturbed Family Identity Syndrome
+Disturbed Family Identity Syndrome, risk for
Diversional Activity Engagement, risk for decreased
Dry Eye, risk for
+Dry-Eye Self-Management, ineffective
Dry Mouth, risk for

Eating Dynamics, ineffective adolescent

Eating Dynamics, ineffective child
Eating Dynamics, ineffective infant
Electrolyte Imbalance, risk for
Elimination, impaired urinary
+Elopement Attempt, risk for
Emancipated Decision-Making, impaired
Emancipated Decision-Making, readiness for enhanced
Emancipated Decision- Making, risk for impaired
Emotional Control, labile
Energy Field, imbalanced
+Exercise Engagement, readiness for enhanced

+Falls, risk for adult

+Falls, risk for child
Family Processes, dysfunctional
Family Processes, interrupted
Family Processes, readiness for enhanced
Fatigue
Fear
Female Genital Mutilation, risk for
[Fluid Volume, deficient hyper-/hypotonic]
Fluid Volume, deficient [isotonic]
Fluid Volume, excess
Fluid Volume, risk for deficient
Fluid Volume, risk for imbalanced
Frail Elderly Syndrome
Frail Elderly Syndrome, risk for

Gas Exchange, impaired

Gastrointestinal Motility, dysfunctional
Gastrointestinal Motility, risk for dysfunctional
+Grieving, readiness for enhanced
+Grieving, maladaptive
+Grieving, risk for maladaptive
[Growth, risk for disproportionate]

Health, deficient community

Health Behavior, risk-prone
Health Literacy, readiness for enhanced
+Health Maintenance Behaviors, ineffective
+Health Self-Management, ineffective
+Health Self-Management, ineffective family
+Health Self-Management, readiness for enhanced
+Home Maintenance Behaviors, ineffective
+Home Maintenance Behaviors, readiness for enhanced
+Home Maintenance Behaviors, risk for ineffective
Hope, readiness for enhanced
Hopelessness
Human Dignity, risk for compromised
Hyperbilirubinemia, neonatal
Hyperbilirubinemia, risk for neonatal
Hyperthermia
Hypothermia
+Hypothermia, neonatal
Hypothermia, risk for
+Hypothermia, risk for neonatal
Hypothermia, risk for perioperative

Immigration Transition, risk for complicated

Impulse Control, ineffective
Incontinence, disability-associated urinary
Incontinence, mixed urinary
Incontinence, stress urinary
Incontinence, risk for urge urinary
Incontinence, urge urinary
Infection, risk for
Injury, risk for
Injury, risk for corneal
Injury, risk for urinary tract
Insomnia

Knowledge, deficient
Knowledge, readiness for enhanced

Latex Allergy Reaction, risk for

Lifestyle, sedentary
Liver Function, risk for impaired
Loneliness, risk for
+Lymphedema Self- Management, ineffective
+Lymphedema Self- Management, risk for ineffective

Maternal-Fetal Dyad, risk for disturbed

Memory, impaired
Metabolic Imbalance Syndrome, risk for
Mobility, impaired bed
Mobility, impaired physical
Mobility, impaired wheelchair
Mood Regulation, impaired
Moral Distress
+Motor Development, delayed infant
+Motor Development, risk for delayed infant
Mucous Membrane Integrity, impaired oral
Mucous Membrane, risk for impaired oral

Nausea
Neonatal Abstinence Syndrome
Neurovascular Dysfunction, risk for peripheral
+Nipple-Areolar Complex Injury
+Nipple-Areolar Complex Injury, risk for
Nutrition: less than body requirements, imbalanced
Nutrition, readiness for enhanced

Obesity
Occupational Injury, risk for
Overweight
Overweight, risk for

Pain, acute
Pain, chronic
Pain, labor
Parenting, impaired
Parenting, readiness for enhanced
Parenting, risk for impaired
*Perioperative Positioning Injury, risk for
Personal Identity, disturbed
Personal Identity, risk for disturbed
Poisoning, risk for
Post-Trauma Syndrome
Post-Trauma Syndrome, risk for
Power, readiness for enhanced
Powerlessness
Powerlessness, risk for
+Pressure Injury, adult
+Pressure Injury, risk for adult
+Pressure Injury, child
+Pressure Injury, risk for child
+Pressure Injury, neonate
+Pressure Injury, risk for neonate
Protection, ineffective

Rape-Trauma Syndrome
Relationship, ineffective
Relationship, readiness for enhanced
Relationship, risk for ineffective
Religiosity, impaired
Religiosity, readiness for enhanced
Religiosity, risk for impaired
Relocation Stress Syndrome
Relocation Stress Syndrome, risk for
Resilience, impaired
Resilience, readiness for enhanced
Resilience, risk for impaired
Retention, urinary [acute/chronic], risk for urinary
Role Conflict, parental
Role Performance, ineffective
Role Strain, caregiver
Role Strain, risk for caregiver

Self-Care, readiness for enhanced

Self-Care Deficit, Bathing
Self-Care Deficit, Dressing
Self-Care Deficit, Feeding
Self-Care Deficit, Toileting
Self-Concept, readiness for enhanced
Self-Esteem, chronic low
Self-Esteem, risk for chronic low
Self-Esteem, risk for situational low
Self-Esteem, situational low
Self-Mutilation
Self-Mutilation, risk for
Self-Neglect
[Sensory Perception, disturbed (specify: visual, auditory, kinesthetic, gustatory, tactile,
olfactory)]
Sexual Dysfunction
Sexuality Pattern, ineffective
Shock, risk for
Sitting, impaired
Skin Integrity, impaired
Skin Integrity, risk for impaired
Sleep, readiness for enhanced
Sleep Deprivation
Sleep Pattern, disturbed
Social Interaction, impaired
Social Isolation
Sorrow, chronic
Spiritual Distress
Spiritual Distress, risk for
Spiritual Well-Being, readiness for enhanced
Standing, impaired
Stress Overload
+Suck-Swallow Response, ineffective infant
Sudden Infant Death, risk for
Suffocation, risk for
+Suicidal Behavior, risk for
Surgical Recovery, delayed
Surgical Recovery, risk for delayed
Surgical Site Infection, risk for
Swallowing, impaired

Thermal Injury, risk for

Thermoregulation, ineffective
Thermoregulation, risk for ineffective
+Thought Process, disturbed
Thrombosis, risk for
Tissue Integrity, impaired
Tissue Integrity, risk for impaired
Tissue Perfusion, ineffective peripheral
Tissue Perfusion, risk for decreased cardiac
Tissue Perfusion, risk for ineffective cerebral
Tissue Perfusion, risk for ineffective peripheral
Transfer Ability, impaired
Trauma, risk for physical
Trauma, risk for vascular

Unilateral Neglect

Ventilation, impaired spontaneous

Ventilatory Weaning Response, dysfunctional
+Ventilatory Weaning Response, dysfunctional adult
Violence, risk for other-directed
Violence, risk for self-directed

Walking, impaired
Wandering [specify sporadic or continuous]
+New ND
*Change in alphabetical order reflecting NANDA-I’s foci for the specific nursing diagnosis.
Used with permission from Herdman, T.H., Kamitsuru, S., Takáo Lopes, C. (2021). NANDA International, Inc. Nursing
Diagnoses Definitions and Classification, 2021–2023.
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Information in brackets added by authors to clarify and enhance the use of the NDs.
 NURSE’S POCKET MINDER
Convert Nursing Problem Statement Into Nursing Diagnosis
Quickly Easily Accurately

Following is a complete listing of NANDA-I through 2021–2023 categorized according to

Diagnostic Divisions.

ACTIVITY/REST— Ability to engage in necessary/desired activities of life (work and

leisure) and to obtain adequate sleep/rest
Activity Tolerance, decreased
Activity Tolerance, risk for decreased
Disuse Syndrome, risk for
Diversional Activity Engagement, decreased
Fatigue
Insomnia
Lifestyle, sedentary
Mobility, impaired bed
Mobility, impaired physical
Mobility, impaired wheelchair
Motor Development, delayed infant
Motor Development, risk for delayed infant
Sitting, impaired
Sleep Deprivation
Sleep Pattern, disturbed
Sleep, readiness for enhanced
Standing, impaired
Transfer Ability, impaired
Walking, impaired
Wandering
CIRCULATION— Ability to transport oxygen and nutrients necessary to meet cellular
needs
Autonomic Dysreflexia
Autonomic Dysreflexia, risk for
Bleeding, risk for
Blood Pressure, risk for unstable
Cardiac Output, decreased
Cardiac Output, risk for decreased
Cardiovascular Function, risk for impaired
Lymphedema Self-Management, ineffective
Lymphedema Self-Management, risk for ineffective
Metabolic Syndrome, risk for
Neurovascular Dysfunction, risk for peripheral
Shock, risk for
Thrombosis, risk for
Tissue Perfusion, ineffective peripheral
Tissue Perfusion, risk for decreased cardiac
Tissue Perfusion, risk for ineffective cerebral
Tissue Perfusion, risk for ineffective peripheral
COMFORT— Ability to control internal/external environment to maintain comfort
Chronic Pain Syndrome
Comfort, impaired
Comfort, readiness for enhanced
Dry Mouth, risk for
Dry Eye, risk for
Dry Eye Self-Management, ineffective
Pain, acute
Pain, chronic
Pain, labor
ELIMINATION— Ability to excrete waste products (bowel, bladder)
Constipation
Constipation, chronic functional
Constipation, perceived
Constipation, risk for
Constipation, risk for chronic functional
Continence, impaired bowel
Diarrhea
Elimination, impaired urinary
Gastrointestinal Motility, dysfunctional
Gastrointestinal Motility, risk for dysfunctional
Incontinence, disability-associated urinary
Incontinence, mixed urinary
Incontinence, risk for urge urinary
Incontinence, stress urinary
Incontinence, urge urinary
Injury, risk for urinary tract
Retention [acute/chronic], urinary
Retention, risk for urinary
FOOD/FLUID— Ability to maintain intake of and utilize nutrients and liquids to meet
physiological needs
Blood Glucose Level, risk for unstable
Breast Milk Production, insufficient
Breastfeeding, ineffective
Breastfeeding, interrupted
Breastfeeding, readiness for enhanced
Dentition, impaired
Eating Dynamics, ineffective adolescent
Eating Dynamics, ineffective child
Eating Dynamics, ineffective infant
Electrolyte Imbalance, risk for
[Fluid Volume, deficient (hyper/hypotonic)]
Fluid Volume, deficient [isotonic]
Fluid Volume, excess
Fluid Volume, risk for deficient
Fluid Volume, risk for imbalanced
Liver Function, risk for impaired
Mucous Membrane Integrity, impaired oral
Mucous Membrane Integrity, risk for impaired oral
Nausea
Nipple-Areolar Complex Injury
Nipple-Areolar Complex Injury, risk for
Nutrition: less than body requirements, imbalanced
Nutrition, readiness for enhanced
Obesity
Overweight
Overweight, risk for
Suck-Swallow Response, ineffective infant
Swallowing, impaired
HEALTH MANAGEMENT— Ability to incorporate and act on information to achieve
healthy lifestyle/optimal wellness
Development, delayed child
Development, risk for delayed child
Emancipated Decision-Making, impaired
Emancipated Decision-Making, readiness for enhanced
Emancipated Decision-Making, risk for impaired
Exercise Engagement, readiness for enhanced
Frail Elderly Syndrome
Frail Elderly Syndrome, risk for
[Growth, risk for disproportionate]
Health, deficient community
Health Behavior, risk-prone
Health Literacy, readiness for enhanced
Health Maintenance Behaviors, ineffective
Health Self-Management, ineffective
Health Self-Management, ineffective family
Health Self-Management, readiness for enhanced
Knowledge, deficient
Knowledge, readiness for enhanced
Surgical Recovery, delayed
Surgical Recovery, risk for delayed
NEUROSENSORY— Ability to perceive, integrate, and respond to internal and external
cues
Behavior, disorganized infant
Behavior, readiness for enhanced organized infant
Behavior, risk for disorganized infant
Confusion, acute
Confusion, chronic
Confusion, risk for acute
Memory, impaired
[Sensory Perception, disturbed (specify: visual, auditory, kinesthetic, gustatory, tactile,
olfactory)]
Thought Process, disturbed
Unilateral Neglect
RESPIRATION— Ability to provide and use oxygen to meet physiological needs
Airway Clearance, ineffective
Aspiration, risk for
Breathing Pattern, ineffective
Gas Exchange, impaired
Ventilation, impaired spontaneous
Ventilatory Weaning Response, dysfunctional
Ventilatory Weaning Response, dysfunctional, adult
ROLES/RELATIONSHIPS— Ability to accomplish role development and establish and
maintain relationships
Attachment, risk for impaired
Communication, impaired verbal
Communication, readiness for enhanced
Coping, compromised family
Coping, disabled family
Coping, ineffective community
Coping, readiness for enhanced community
Coping, readiness for enhanced family
Disturbed Family Identity Syndrome
Disturbed Family Identity Syndrome, risk for
Family Processes, dysfunctional
Family Processes, interrupted
Family Processes, readiness for enhanced
Loneliness, risk for
Parenting, impaired
Parenting, readiness for enhanced
Parenting, risk for impaired
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worshippers, and may therefore allude to the murmuring of the water of the
well. Some Muslim commentators derive it from zamm! zamm! i.e. “fill!
fill!” Hagar’s words to Ishmael when she saw the water. Sale translates it:
“Stay! Stay!” and adds that Hagar called out in the Egyptian language to
prevent Ishmael wandering.

The building which encloses the well Zamzam stands close by the Maqām
Ḥanbalī, and was erected in a.h. 1072 (a.d. 1661). According to
Burckhardt, it is of a square shape, and of massive construction, with an
entrance to the north, opening into the room which contains the well. This
room is beautifully ornamented with marbles of various colours; and
adjoining to it, but having a separate door, is a small room with a stone
reservoir, which is always full of Zamzam water. This the pilgrims get to
drink by passing their hand, with a cup, through an iron-grated opening
which serves as a window, into the reservoir, without entering the room.
The mouth of the well is surrounded by a wall five feet in height, and about
ten feet in diameter. Upon this the people stand who draw up the water in
leathern buckets, an iron railing being so placed as to prevent their falling
in. The water is then poured into earthen jars, called dauraq, which Captain
Burton describes as little amphoræ, each marked with the name of the donor
and a peculiar cypher. These jars are placed in long rows on the ground,
along the paved causeways which lead up to the Kaʿbah, and between
which grass appears growing in several places, produced by the Zamzam
water oozing out of the jars.

The Zamzam water is held in great esteem throughout the East. It is used
for drinking and ablution, but for no baser purposes; and the Makkans
advise pilgrims always to break their fast with it. Captain Burton says: “It is
apt to cause diarrhœa and boils, and I never saw a stranger drink it without
a wry face. Sale is decidedly correct in his assertion: the flavour is salt-
bitter, much resembling an infusion of a teaspoonful of Epsom salts in a
large tumbler of tepid water. Moreover, it is exceedingly ‘heavy’ to the
taste; for this reason, Turks and other strangers prefer rain-water collected
in cisterns, and sold for five farthings a guglet. The water is transmitted to
distant regions in glazed earthen jars covered with basketwork, and sealed
by the Zem Zemis (Zamzamīs, or dispensers of the holy water). Religious
men break their lenten fast with it, apply it to their eyes to brighten vision,
and imbibe a few drops at the hour of death, when Satan stands by holding
a bowl of purest water, the price of the departing soul. The copious supply
of the well is considered at Meccah miraculous; in distant countries it
facilitates the pronunciation of Arabic to the student; and everywhere the
nauseous draught is highly meritorious in a religious point of view.”

According to the same author, the name has become generic for a well
situated within the walls of a mosque, and amongst these, naturally, the
Zamzam of al-Madīnah stands nearest in dignity to the Makkah well, with
which it is said to be connected by a subterraneous passage. Others believe
that it is filled by a vein of water springing directly under the Prophet’s
grave, whence it is generally called Biʾru ʾn-Nabī, or the Prophet’s well. It
stands at the south-east angle of an enclosure within the court of the mosque
of al-Madīnah, called the garden of Fāt̤ imah, under a wooden roof
supported by pillars of the same material.

ZANĀNAH ( ‫زنانة‬‎ ). A Persian adjective derived from the word zan, “a

woman.” That which belongs to women. It denotes the household of a
Muḥammadan, his wives and children, and the apartments in which they
reside. For a full account of an Indian zanānah by Mrs. Meer Ali, see
harim.

“A zanānah mission” is a Christian mission established for the benefit of the

wives and daughters of Muḥammadans.
ZANJABĪL ( ‫زنجبيل‬‎ ). “Ginger.” An aromatic with which the cups of
Paradise are flavoured. See Qurʾān, Sūrah lxxvi. 17 : “And they shall drink
therein a cup tempered with zanjabīl.”

Z̤ ANN (‫ظن‬‎ ), pl. z̤ unūn. “Opinion; suspicion.” In Muḥammadan law, a

presumption that a charge is well-founded, although the evidence is
inconclusive. Az̤ -Z̤ annu ʾl-G͟ halīb, expresses a strong presumption of truth
in a charge, although the evidence does not amount to conviction. The “Not
proven” of Scotch law. The word z̤ ann, in the sense of “suspicion,” occurs
in the Qurʾān, Sūrah xlix. 12 : “O Believers! avoid frequent suspicions, for
some suspicions are a crime.”

ZAQQŪM ( ‫زقوم‬‎). An infernal tree described in the Qurʾān.

Sūrah xxxvii. 60–64 : “Is this the better repast or the tree az-Zaqqūm?
Verily We have made it for a subject of discord to the wicked: Lo, it is a tree
which cometh up from the bottom of hell; its fruit is as it were the heads of
Satans; and, lo! the damned shall surely eat of it and fill their bellies with
it.”

Sūrah xliv. 43, 44 : “Verily the tree of az-Zaqqūm shall be the sinner’s
food.”

Sūrah lvi. 51–53 : “Then verily ye, O ye the erring, the imputers of
falsehood, shall surely eat of the tree of Zaqqūm, and fill your bellies with
it.”

It is a name now given to a thorny tree, whose fruit is sweet and styptic, and
from the stone of which oil is extracted. (Richardson’s Dictionary.)

ZARĀMĪYAH ( ‫زرامية‬‎ ). A sect of Shīʿah Muḥammadans, who say that

the next Imāms after ʿAlī were Muḥammad ibn Ḥanfīyah, ʿAbdullāh, ʿAlī
ibn ʿAbdillāh ibn ʿAbbās, and afterwards his progeny, as far as Manṣūr,
until at last the Divine power entered into Abū Muslim, who, they assert,
was not really slain. (Kashfu ʾl-Iṣt̤ ilāḥāt, in loco.)

ZARĀRĪYAH ( ‫زرارية‬‎ ). A sect of Muslims founded by one of the

Companions, named Zarārah, who say the attributes of God are not eternal.
(Kitābu ʾt-Taʿrīfāt, in loco.)

ẒARB ( ‫ضرب‬‎ ). Lit. “Striking.” In arithmetic, “Multiplication.” The

concluding foot of a line in poetry. A term used by Ṣūfī mystics for the
ceremony of ẕikr.

aẕ-ẔĀRĪYĀT ( ‫الذاريات‬‎ ). “The Scatterers.” The title of the list Sūrah

of the Qurʾān which begins with the words “By the Scatterers who scatter.”
By which is understood the winds of heaven.
aẓ-ẒĀRR ( ‫الضار‬‎ ). “The Distresser.” One of the ninety-nine attributes of
God. In the Qurʾān the word is applied to Satan.

Sūrah lviii. 11 : “Only of Satan is this clandestine talk, that he may bring
the faithful to grief; but, unless by God’s permission, not aught shall he
harm them (laisa bi-ẓārrihim)! in God, then, let the faithful trust.”

God, therefore, is called the “Distresser,” in so far as evil befalls man only
by His permission.

ẔARRAH ( ‫ذرة‬‎ ). “An atom.” The word occurs in the Qurʾān in the
following verse:—

Sūrah xcix. 6 : “On that day shall men come up in separate bands to behold
their works; and whosoever shall have wrought an atom’s weight of good
shall behold it, and whosoever shall have wrought an atom’s weight of evil
shall behold it.”

ẔĀT ( ‫ذات‬‎ ), pl. ẕawāt. From ẕū, “a possessor,” of which ẕāt is the
feminine. In the Dictionary al-Mug͟ hrab it is defined as the essence of a
thing, meaning that by being which a thing is what it is, or that in being
which a thing consists; or the ultimate and radical constituent of a thing. It
is used for the nature or essence of God, Allāh being called the Ismu ʾẕ-Ẕāt,
or “Essential name of God.” Ẕātu ʾllāh, the “Essence of God,” is a
scholastic theological expression. In Muslim law, ẕāt signifies the body
connected with the soul, in opposition to badn, which means the “material
body.”

ẔAWŪ ʾL-ARḤĀM ( ‫ذوو االرحام‬‎). [uterine relations.]

ẔAWŪ ʾL-FURŪẒ ( ‫ذوو الفروض‬‎ ). The Sharers of inheritance

whose shares are specified in the Qurʾān itself. [inheritance.]

ZEALOTS. [ghulat.]

Z̤ IHĀR (‫ظهار‬‎ ). Lit. “Likening to the back.” A form of imprecation

which involves the separation of husband and wife until expiation is made.
According to the Hidāyah, z̤ ihār signifies the likening of a woman to a
kinswoman within the prohibited degrees, which interpretation is found in
the comparison being applied to any of the parts or members of the body
improper to be seen. The usual formula is: Anti ʿalaiya ka-z̤ ahri ummī,
“Thou art unto me as my mother’s back.”

Before the establishment of Muḥammadanism, z̤ ihār stood as a divorce, but

Muḥammad changed it to a temporary prohibition, for which expiation must
be performed, viz. either freeing a slave, or two months’ fast, or feeding
sixty persons. Qurʾān, Sūratu ʾl-Mujādilah (lviii.), 1–5 :—
“God hath heard the words of her who pleaded with thee against her
husband, and made her plaint to God; and God hath heard your mutual
intercourse: for God Heareth! Beholdeth.

“As to those of you who put away their wives by saying, “Be thou to me as
my mother’s back”—their mothers they are not; they only are their mothers
who gave them birth! they certainly say a blameworthy thing and an
untruth:

“But truly, God is Forgiving, Indulgent.

“And those who thus put away their wives, and afterwards would recall
their words, must free a captive before they can come together again. To
this are ye warned to conform: and God is aware of what ye do.

“And he who findeth not a captive to set free, shall fast two months in
succession before they two come together. And he who shall not be able to
do so, shall feed sixty poor men. This, that he may believe in God and His
Apostle. These are the statutes of God: and for the unbelievers is an
afflictive chastisement!”

The above injunction was occasioned by K͟ haulah, the daughter of S̤ aʿlabah,

having pleaded her case with the Prophet, because she had been divorced by
her husband Aus ibn aṣ-Ṣāmit, by the formula above-mentioned, and which
was understood by the Arabs to imply perpetual separation. Muḥammad
had, in the first instance, decreed the divorce in accordance with ancient
Arabic law, but relaxed his order in consequence of the woman’s earnest
pleadings.

ẔIKR ( ‫ذكر‬‎ ). Lit. “Remembering.” Heb. ‫‏ָזַכר‬‎zākhar. The religious

ceremony, or act of devotion, which is practised by the various religious
orders of Faqīrs, or Darweshes. Almost every religious Muḥammadan is a
member of some order of Faqīrs, and, consequently, the performance of ẕikr
is very common in all Muḥammadan countries; but it does not appear that
any one method of performing the religious service of ẕikr is peculiar to any
order.

Ẕikrs, are of two kinds: ẕikr jalī, that which is recited aloud, and ẕikr k͟ hafī,
that which is performed either with a low voice or mentally.

The Naqshbandīyah order of Faqīrs usually perform the latter, whilst the
Chishtīyah and Qādirīyah orders celebrate the former. There are various
ways of going through the exercise, but the main features of each are
similar in character. The following is a ẕikr jalī, as given in the book Qaulu
ʾl-Jamīl, by Maulawī Shāh Walīyu ʾllāh, of Delhi:—

The worshipper sits in the usual sitting posture and shouts the word Allāh
(God), drawing his voice from his left side and then from his throat.

Sitting as at prayers he repeats the word Allāh still louder than before, first
from his right knee, and then from his left side.

Folding his legs under him he repeats the word Allāh first from his right
knee and then from his left side, still louder!

Still remaining in the same position, he shouts the word Allāh, first from the
left knee, then from the right knee, then from the left side, and lastly in
front, still louder!

Sitting as at prayer, with his face towards Makkah, he closes his eyes, says
“Lā”—drawing the sound as from his navel up to his left shoulder; then he
says ilāha, drawing out the sound as from his brain; and lastly “illā ʾllāhu,”
repeated from his left side with great energy.

Each of these stages is called a ẓarb. They are, of course, recited many
hundreds of times over, and the changes we have described account for the
variations of sound and motion of the body described by Eastern travellers
who have witnessed the performance of a ẕikr.

The following is a ẕikr k͟ hafī, or that which is performed in either a low

voice or mentally.
Closing his eyes and lips, he says, “with the tongue of the heart,”

Allāhu Samīʿun, “God the Hearer.”

Allāhu Baṣīrun, “God the Seer.”

Allāhu ʿĀlimun, “God the Knower.”

The first being drawn, as it were, from the navel to the breast; the second,
from the breast to the brain; the third, from the brain up the heavens; and
then again repeated stage by stage backwards and forwards.

He says in a low voice, “Allāh,” from the right knee, and then from the left
side.

With each exhalation of his breath, he says, “lā ilāha,” and with each
inhalation, “illā ʾllāhu.”

This third ẓarb is a most exhausting act of devotion, performed, as it is,

hundreds or even thousands of times, and is, therefore, considered the most
meritorious.

It is related that Maulawī Ḥabību ʾllāh, living in the village of Gabāsanri, in

the Gadūn country, on the Peshawur frontier, became such an adept in the
performance of this ẓarb, that he recited the first part of the ẕikr lā ilāha
with the exhalation of his breath after the mid-day prayer; and the second
part, illā ʾllāhu, with the inhalation of his breath before the next time of
prayer, thus sustaining his breath for the period of about three hours!

Another act of devotion, which usually accompanies the ẕikr, is that of

Murāqabah, or meditation.

The worshipper first performs ẕikr of the following:—

Allāho hāzirī, “God who is present with me.”

Allāho nāz̤ irī, “God who sees me.”

Allāho shāhidī, “God who witnesses me.”

Allāho maʿī, “God who is with me.”

Having recited this ẕikr, either aloud or mentally, the worshipper proceeds
to meditate upon some verse or verses of the Qurʾān. Those recommended
for the Qādirīyah Faqīrs by Maulavī Shāh Walīyu ʾllāh are the following,
which we give as indicating the line of thought which is considered most
devotional and spiritual by Muslim mystics:—

1. Sūratu ʾl-Ḥadīd (lvii.), 3 :—

“He (God) is first. He is last. The Manifest, and the Hidden, and who
knoweth all things.”

2. Sūratu ʾl-Ḥadīd (lvii.), 4 :—

“He (God) is with you wheresoever ye be.”

3. Sūratu Qāf (l.), 16 :—

“We (God) are closer to him (man) than his neck-vein.”

4. Sūratu ʾl-Baqarah (ii.), 109 :—

“Whichever way ye turn, there is the face of God.”

5. Sūratu ʾn-Nisāʾ (iv.), 125 :—

“God encompasseth all things.”

6. Sūratu ʾr-Raḥmān (lv.), 26, 27 :—

“All on earth shall pass away, but the face of thy God shall abide
resplendent with majesty and glory.”

Some teachers tell their disciples that the heart has two doors, that which is
fleshly, and that which is spiritual; and that the ẕikr jalī has been established
for the opening of the former, and ẕikr k͟ hafī for the latter, in order that they
may both be enlightened.

To the uninitiated such a ceremony appears but a meaningless rite, but to

the Ṣūfī it is one calculated to convey great benefit to his inner man, as will
appear from the following instructions which are given by a member of the
Order respecting the ẕikr, which he says is a union of the heart and the
tongue in calling upon God’s name. “In the first place, the Shaik͟ h, or
teacher, must with his heart recite, ‘There is no God but Allah, and
Muḥammad is the Prophet of Allah,’ whilst the Murid keeps his attention
fixed by placing his heart opposite that of the Shaik͟ h; he must close his
eyes, keep his mouth firmly shut, and his tongue pressed against the roof of
his mouth; his teeth tight against each other, and hold his breath; then, with
great force, accompany the Shaik͟ h in the ẕikr, which he must recite with his
heart, and not with his tongue. He must retain his breath patiently, so that
within one respiration he shall say the ẕikr three times, and by this means
allow his heart to be impressed with the meditative ẕikr.”

“The heart,” the same writer continues, “in this manner is kept constantly
occupied with the idea of the Most High God; it will be filled with awe,
love, and respect for Him; and, if the practiser arrives at the power of
continuing to effect this when in the company of a crowd, the ẕikr is perfect.
If he cannot do this, it is clear that he must continue his efforts. The heart is
a subtle part of the human frame, and is apt to wander away after worldly
concerns, so that the easier mode of arriving at the proceeding is to
compress the breath, and keep the mouth firmly closed with the tongue
forced against the lips. The heart is shaped like the cone of a fir-tree; your
meditations should be forced upon it, whilst you mentally recite the ẕikr.
‘Let the “La” be upward, the “Ilaha” to the right, and the whole phrase “La
ilaha illa ʾllahu” (There is no God but Allah) be formed upon the fir-cone,
and through it pass to all the members of the whole frame, and they feel its
warmth. By this means the world and all its attractions disappear from your
vision, and you are enabled to behold the excellence of the Most High.
Nothing must be allowed to distract your attention from the ẕikr, and
ultimately you retain, by its medium, a proper conception of the Tauḥīd, or
Unity of God.
“The cone-shaped heart rests in the left breast and contains the whole truth
of man. Indeed, it signifies the ‘whole truth’; it comprises the whole of
man’s existence within itself, and is a compendium of man; mankind, great
and small, are but an extension of it, and it is to humanity what the seed is
to the whole tree which it contains within itself: in fine, the essence of the
whole of God’s book and of all His secrets is the heart of man. Whoever
finds a way to the heart obtains his desire; to find a way to the heart is
needed by a heartful service, and the heart accepts of the services of the
heart. It is only through the fatigues of water and ashes that the Murid
reaches the conversation of the heart and the soul; he will be then so drawn
towards God that afterwards, without any difficulty, he may without
trouble, in case of need, turn his face from all others towards Him. He will
then know the real meaning of the Tark (the abandonment of the world), the
Haqiqat (the truth), the Hurriyat (the freedom), and the Ẕikr (the recital of
God’s names and praises).”

As a curious instance of the superstitious character of this devotional

exercise, the Chishtīyah order believe that if a man sits cross-legged and
seizes the vein called kaimās, which is under the leg, with his toes, that it
will give peace to his heart, when accompanied by a ẕikr of the “nafī wa
is̤ bāt,” which is a term used for the Kalimah, namely:—

Lā ilāha illā ʾllāhu, “There is no deity but God.”

The most common form of ẕikr is a recital of the ninety-nine names of God
[names of god], for Muḥammad promised those of his followers who
recited them a sure entrance to Paradise (Mishkāt, book cxi.); and to
facilitate the recital of these names, the ẕākir (or reciter) uses a tasbīḥ (or
rosary). [tasbih.]

In addition to the forms of ẕikr already mentioned there are three others,
which are even of more common use, and are known as Tasbīḥ, Taḥmīd, and
Takbīr. They are used as exclamations of joy and surprise, as well as for the
devotional exercise of ẕikr.

Tasbīḥ is the expression Subḥāna ʾllāh! “Holiness be to God!”

Taḥmīd, Alḥamdu li-ʾllāh! “Praise be to God!”

Takbīr, Allāhu akbar! “God is great!”

When the Tasbīḥ and Taḥmīd are recited together it is said thus, Ṣubḥāna
ʾllāhi bi-ḥamdi-hi, i.e. “Holiness be to God with His praise.” It is related in
the Ḥadīs̤ that Muḥammad said, “Whoever recites this sentence a hundred
times, morning and evening, will have all his sins forgiven.”

Muḥammad said, “Repeat the Tasbīḥ a hundred times, and a thousand

virtues shall be recorded by God for you, ten virtuous deeds for each
repetition.”

In forming our estimation of Muḥammad and Muḥammadanism, we must

take into consideration the important place the devotional exercise of ẕikr
occupies in the system, not forgetting that it has had the authoritative
sanction of “the Prophet” himself.

The following is a graphic description of one of these devotional

performances, by Dr. Eugene Schuyler, in his work on Turkistan:—

“At about ten o’clock one Thursday evening, in company with several
friends, we went to the mosque, and were at once admitted. Some thirty
men, young and old, were on their knees in front of the qiblah, reciting
prayers with loud cries and violent movements of the body, and around
them was a circle, two or three deep, of men standing, who were going
through the same motions. We took up a position in one corner and watched
the proceedings. For the most part the performers or worshippers had taken
off their outside gowns and their turbans, for the night was warm and the
exercise was violent. They were reciting the words ‘My defence is in God!
May Allah be magnified! My light, Muhammad—God bless him! There is
no God but God!’ These words were chanted to various semi-musical notes
in a low voice, and were accompanied by a violent movement of the head
over the left shoulder towards the heart, then back, then to the right
shoulder, and then down, as if directing all the movements towards the
heart. These texts were repeated for hundreds and hundreds of times, and
this zikr usually lasted for an hour or two. At first the movements were
slow, but continually increased in rapidity, until the performers were unable
to endure it any longer. If anyone failed in his duty, or was slower, or made
less movement than was required, the persons who regulated the enthusiasm
went up to him and struck him over the head, or pushed him back out of the
circle and called another into it. Occasionally persons got so worn out with
their cries, and so wet with perspiration, that it became necessary for them
to retire for a few minutes rest, and their places were immediately taken by
others. When their voices became entirely hoarse with one cry another was
begun, and finally the cry was struck up, ‘He lives! He lives! God lives!’ at
first slowly, with an inclination of the body to the ground: then the rhythm
grew faster and in cadence, the body became more vertical, until at last they
all stood up: the measure still increased in rapidity, and, each one placing
his hand on the shoulder of his neighbour, and then forming several
concentric rings, they moved in a mass from side to side of the mosque,
leaping about and always crying: ‘He lives! God lives!’ Hitherto, there had
been something wild and unearthly in it, but now to persons of weak nerves
it became positively painful, and two of my friends were so much
impressed as to be obliged to leave the mosque. Although I was sufficiently
cold-blooded to see the ridiculous rather than horrible side of this, I could
not help receiving an impression that the devotees were a pack of madmen,
whose motions were utterly independent of any volition of their own.… The
intonations of the voice were very remarkable, and were often accompanied
by most singular gestures, the hands or a book being often held to the side
of the mouth in order to throw the voice as far as possible. Often these
recitations are merely collections of meaningless words, which always seem
to produce the same effect on the hearers, and are constantly interrupted by
cries of Hi, ho, och, och, ba, ba, and groans and sobs, and the hearers weep,
beat their breasts with their fists, or fall upon the ground.”

The dancing and howling darweshes at Constantinople and Cairo have

become public sights, and are familiar to those Europeans who have visited
those cities.

We are indebted to Mr. Brown’s account of The Dervishes (Trübner and

Co., Ludgate Hill) for the following graphic description of one of these
public recitals of ẕikr. [faqir.]
The ceremony commences by the recital by the Shaik͟ h of the seven first
attributes of the Divinity, called by them the seven mysterious words. “He
next chants various passages of the Koran, and at each pause the Dervishes,
placed in a circle round the hall, respond in chorus by the word ‘Allah!’
(God) or ‘Hoo!’ (Huwa or Hū, He). In some of the societies they sit on their
heels, the elbows close to those of each other, and all making
simultaneously light movements of the head and body. In others, the
movement consists in balancing themselves slowly, from the right to the
left, and from the left to the right, or inclining the body methodically
forward and aft. There are other societies in which these motions commence
seated, in measured cadences, with a staid countenance, the eyes closed or
fixed upon the ground, and are continued on foot. These singular exercises
are consecrated under the name of Murâkebeh (exaltation of the Divine
glory) [murāqabah, ‘meditation’], and also under that of the Tevheed
(celebration of the Divine unity) [Tauḥīd], from which comes the name
Tevheed khâneh given to the whole of the halls devoted to these religious
exercises.

“In some of these institutions, such as the Kâdirees, the Rufâʾees, the
Khalwettees, the Bairâmees, the Gulshenees, and the ʾUshâkees, the
exercises are made, each holding the other by the hand, putting forward
always the right foot, and increasing at every step the strength of the
movement of the body. This is called the Devr (Daur), which may be
translated the ‘dance’ or ‘rotation.’ The duration of these dances is arbitrary,
—each one is free to leave when he pleases. Every one, however, makes it a
point to remain as long as possible. The strongest and most robust of the
number, and the most enthusiastic, strive to persevere longer than the
others; they uncover their heads, take off their turbans, form a second circle
within the other, entwine their arms within those of their brethren, lean their
shoulders against each other, gradually raise the voice, and without ceasing
repeat ‘Yâ Allah!’ (O God), or ‘Yâ Hoo!’ (O He), increasing each time the
movement of the body, and not stopping until their entire strength is
exhausted.

“Those of the order of the Rufâʾees excel in these exercises. They are,
moreover, the only ones who use fire in their devotions. Their practices
embrace nearly all those of the other orders; they are ordinarily divided into
five different scenes, which last more than three hours, and which are
preceded, accompanied, and followed by certain ceremonies peculiar to this
order. The first commences with praises which all the Dervishes offer to
their sheikhs, seated before the altar. Four of the more ancient come
forward the first, and approach their superior, embrace each other as if to
give the kiss of peace, and next place themselves two to his right, and two
to his left. The remainder of the Dervishes, in a body, press forward in a
procession, all having their arms crossed, and their heads inclined. Each
one, at first, salutes by a profound bow the tablet on which the name of his
founder is inscribed. Afterwards, putting his two hands over his face and his
beard, he kneels before the Sheikh, kisses his hand respectfully, and then
they all go on with a grave step to take their places on the sheep-skins,
which are spread in a half-circle around the interior of the hall. So soon as a
circle is formed, the Dervishes together chant the Takbeer (Takbīr, the
exclamation Allāhu akbar, ‘God is exalted’) and the Fâtiha (Fātiḥah, the
first chapter of the Qurʾān). Immediately afterwards the shaikh pronounces
the words ‘Lâ ilâha illʾ Allâh’ (There is no deity but God), and repeats them
incessantly; to which the Dervishes repeat ‘Allâh!’ balancing themselves
from side to side, and putting their hands over their faces, on their breasts,
and their abdomen, and on their knees.

“The second scene is opened by the Hamdee Mohammedee, a hymn in

honour of the Prophet, chanted by one of the elders placed on the right of
the sheikh. During this chant the Dervishes continue to repeat the word
‘Allah!’ moving, however, their bodies forward and aft. A quarter of an hour
later they all rise up, approach each other, and press their elbows against
each other, balancing from right to left, and afterwards in a reverse motion,
—the right foot always firm, and the left in a periodical movement, the
reverse of that of the body, all observing great precision of measure and
cadence. In the midst of this exercise, they cry out the words ‘Yâ Allah!’
followed by that of ‘Yâ Hoo!’ Some of the performers sigh, others sob,
some shed tears, others perspire great drops, and all have their eyes closed,
their faces pale, and the eyes languishing.
 ZIKR. (A. F. Hole.)

“A pause of some minutes is followed by a third scene. It is performed in

the middle of an Ilâhee, chanted by the two elders on the right of the sheikh.
The Ilâhees are spiritual cantiques, composed almost exclusively in Persian
by sheikhs deceased in the odour of sanctity. The Dervishes then hasten
their movements, and, to prevent any relaxation, one of the first among
them puts himself in their centre, and excites them by his example. If in the
assembly there be any strange Dervishes, which often happens, they give
them, through politeness, this place of honour; and all fill it successively,
the one after the other, shaking themselves as aforesaid. The only exception
made is in favour of the Mevlevees; these never perform any other dance
than that peculiar to their own order, which consists in turning round on
each heel in succession.

“After a new pause commences the fourth scene. Now all the Dervishes
take off their turbans, form a circle, bear their arms and shoulders against
each other, and thus make the circuit of the hall at a measured pace, striking
their feet at intervals against the floor, and all springing up at once. This
dance continues during the Ilâhees, chanted alternately by the two elders to
the left of the sheikh. In the midst of this chant the cries of ‘Yâ Allah!’ are
increased doubly, as also those of ‘Ya Hoo!’ with frightful howlings,
shrieked by the Dervishes together in the dance. At the moment that they
would seem to stop from sheer exhaustion, the sheikh makes a point of
exerting them to new efforts by walking through their midst, making also
himself most violent movements. He is next replaced by the two elders,
who double the quickness of the step and the agitation of the body; they
even straighten themselves up from time to time, and excite the envy or
emulation of the others in their astonishing efforts to continue the dance,
until their strength is entirely exhausted.

“The fourth scene leads to the last, which is the most frightful of all, the
wholly prostrated condition of the actors becoming converted into a species
of ecstasy which they call Halet (Ḥālah). It is in the midst of this
abandonment of self, or rather of religious delirium, that they make use of
red hot irons. Several cutlasses and other instruments of sharp-pointed iron
are suspended in the niches of the hall, and upon a part of the wall to the
right of the sheikh. Near the close of the fourth scene, two Dervishes take
down eight or nine of these instruments, heat them red-hot, and present
them to the sheikh. He, after reciting some prayers over them, and invoking
the founder of the Order, Ahmed er Rufâʾee, breathes over them, and raising
them slightly to the mouth, gives them to the Dervishes, who ask for them
with the greatest eagerness. Then it is that these fanatics, transported by
frenzy, seize upon these irons, gloat upon them tenderly, lick them, bite
them, hold them between their teeth, and end by cooling them in their
mouths! Those who are unable to procure any, seize upon the cutlasses
hanging on the wall with fury, and stick them into their sides, arms, and
legs.

“Thanks to the fury of their frenzy, and to the amazing boldness which they
deem a merit in the eyes of the Divinity, all stoically bear up against the
pain which they experience with apparent gaiety. If, however, some of them
fall under their sufferings, they throw themselves into the arms of their
confrères, but without a complaint or the least sign of pain. Some minutes
after this the sheikh walks round the hall, visits each one of the performers
in turn, breathes upon their wounds, rubs them with saliva, recites prayers
over them, and promises them speedy cures. It is said that twenty-four
hours afterwards nothing is to be seen of their wounds.
“It is the common opinion among the Rufâʾees that the origin of these
bloody practices can be traced back to the founder of the Order. They
pretend that one day, during the transport of his frenzy, Ahmed Rufâʾee put
his legs in a burning basin of coals, and was immediately cured by the
breath and saliva and the prayers of ʾAbdul Kâdir Ghilânee; they believe
that their founder received this same prerogative from heaven, and that at
his death he transmitted it to all the sheikhs his successors. It is for this
reason that they give to these sharp instruments, and to these red-hot irons,
and other objects employed by them in their mysterious frenzy, the name of
Gul, which signifies ‘rose,’ wishing to indicate thereby that the use made of
them is as agreeable to the soul of the elect Dervishes as the odour of this
flower may be to the voluptuary.

“These extraordinary exercises seem to have something prodigious in them,

which imposes on common people, but they have not the same effect on the
minds of men of good sense and reason. The latter believe less in the
sanctity of these pretended thaumaturges than in the virtue of certain secrets
which they adroitly use to keep up the illusion and the credulity of the
spectators, even among the Dervishes themselves. It is thus, perhaps, that
some assemblies of these fanatics have given, in this age of light, and in the
heart of the most enlightened nation, the ridiculous spectacle of those pious
and barbarous buffooneries known by the name of convulsions. At all times,
and amongst every people of the earth, weakness and credulity, enthusiasm
and charlatanry, have but too frequently profaned the most holy faith, and
objects the most worthy of our veneration.

“After the Rufâʾees, the Sâʾdees have also the reputation of performing
miracles, pretty much of the same sort as the preceding. One reads in the
institutes of this Order, that Sâʾd ed Deen Jebâwee, its founder, when
cutting wood in the vicinity of Damascus, found three snakes of an
enormous length, and that, after having recited some prayers and blown
upon them, he caught them alive, and used them as a rope with which to
bind his fagot. To this occurrence they ascribe the pretended virtue of the
sheikhs and the Dervishes of this society, to find out snakes, to handle them,
to bite them, and even to eat them, without any harm to themselves. Their
exercises consist, like those of the Rufâʾees and other Orders, at first in
seating themselves, and afterwards in rising upright; but in often changing
the attitude, and in redoubling their agitation even until they become
overcome with fatigue, when they fall upon the floor motionless and
without knowledge. Then the sheikh, aided by his vicars, employs no other
means to draw them out of this state of unconsciousness than to rub their
arms and legs, and to breathe into their ears the words ‘Lâ ilâha illʾ Allah.’

“The Mevlevees are distinguished by the singularity of their dance, which

has nothing in common with that of the other societies. They call it Semʾa
(Samāʿ) in place of Devr (Daur), and the halls consecrated to it are called
Semʾa khânehs. Their construction is also different. The apartment
represents a kind of pavilion, sufficiently light, and sustained by eight
columns of wood. These Dervishes have also prayers and practices peculiar
to themselves. Among them the public exercises are not ordinarily made by
more than nine, eleven, or thirteen individuals. They commence by forming
a circle, seated on sheep-skin spread upon the floor at equal distances from
each other; they remain nearly a half-hour in this position, the arms folded,
the eyes closed, the head inclined, and absorbed in profound meditation.

“The sheikh, placed on the edge of his seat on a small carpet, breaks silence
by a hymn in honour of the Divinity; afterwards he invites the assembly to
chant with him the first chapter of the Koran. ‘Let us chant the Fâtiha,’ he
says, in ‘glorifying the holy name of God, in honour of the blessed religion
of the prophets, but above all, of Mohammed Mustapha, the greatest, the
most august, the most magnificent of all the celestial envoys, and in
memory of the first four Caliphs, of the sainted Fâtimah, of the chaste
Khadeeja, of the Imâms Hasan and Husain, of all the martyrs of the
memorable day, of the ten evangelical disciples, the virtuous sponsors of
our sainted Prophet, of all his zealous and faithful disciples, of all the
Imâms, Mujtahids (sacred interpreters), of all the doctors, of all the holy
men and women of Mussulmanism. Let us chant also in honour of Hazreti
Mevlânâ, the founder of our Order, of Hazreti Sultan ul ʾUlema (his father),
of Sayid Burhân ed Deen (his teacher), of Sheikh Shems ed Din (his
consecrator), of Vâlideh Sultan (his mother), of Mohammed ʾAllay ed Deen
Efendi (his son and vicar), of all the Chelebees (his successors), of all the
sheikhs, of all the Dervishes, and all the protectors of our Order, to whom
the Supreme Being deigns to give peace and mercy. Let us pray for the
constant prosperity of our holy society, for the preservation of the very
learned and venerable Chelebee Efendi (the General of the Order), our
master and lord, for the preservation of the reigning Sultan, the very
majestic and clement Emperor of the Mussulman faith, for the prosperity of
the Grand Vizier, and of the Sheikh ul Islâm, and that of all the
Mohammedan militia, of all the pilgrims of the holy city of Mekkeh. Let us
pray for the repose of the souls of all the institutors, of all the sheikhs, and
of all the Dervishes of all other Orders; for all good people, for all those
who have been distinguished by their good works, their foundations, and
their acts of beneficence. Let us pray also for all the Mussulmans of one and
the other sex of the east and the west, for the maintenance of all prosperity,
for preventing all adversity, for the accomplishment of all salutary vows,
and for the success of all praiseworthy enterprises; finally, let us ask God to
deign to preserve in us the gift of His grace, and the fire of holy love.’

“After the Fâtiha, which the assembly chant in a body, the Sheikh recites
the Fâtiha and the Salawât, to which the dance of the Dervishes succeeds.
Leaving their places all at once, they stand in a file to the left of the
superior, and, approaching near him with slow steps, the arms folded, and
the head bent to the floor, the first of the Dervishes, arrived nearly opposite
the Sheikh, salutes, with a profound inclination, the tablet which is on his
seat, on which is the name of Hazreti Mevlânâ, the founder of the Order.
Advancing next by two springs forward, to the right side of the superior, he
turns toward him, salutes him with reverence, and commences the dance,
which consists in turning on the left heel, in advancing slowly, and almost
insensibly making the turn of the hall, the eyes closed, and the arms open.
He is followed by the second Dervish, he by the third, and so on with all the
others, who end by filling up the whole of the hall, each repeating the same
exercises separately, and all at a certain distance from each other.

“This dance lasts sometimes for a couple of hours; it is only interrupted by

two short pauses, during which the Sheikh recites different prayers.
Towards the close of the exercises, he takes a part in them himself, by
placing himself in the midst of the Dervishes; then returning to his seat, he
recites some Persian verses expressive of good wishes for the prosperity of
the religion, and the State. The General of the Order is again named, also
the reigning Sultan, in the following terms: ‘The Emperor of the
Mussalmans, and the most august of monarchs of the house of ʾOthman,
Sultan, son of a sultan, grandson of a sultan, Sultan ——, son of Sultan
——, Khan,’ &c.

“Here the poem mentions all the princes of blood, the Grand Vizier, the
Muftee, all the Pashas of the empire, the ʾUlemas, all the Sheikhs,
benefactors of the Order, and of all the Mussulman peers, invoking the
benediction of heaven on the success of their arms against the enemies of
the empire. ‘Finally, let us pray for all the Dervishes present and absent, for
all the friends of our holy society, and generally for all the faithful, dead
and living, in the east and in the west.

“The ceremony terminates by chanting the Fâtiha, or first chapter of the

Koran.”

(John P. Brown, The Dervishes, or Oriental Spiritualism, p. 218 seqq.)

These ceremonies of ẕikr would at first sight appear to have little in

common with original Muḥammadanism, but there appears to be little doubt
that the practice of reciting the word Allāh and other similar expressions,
commenced in the days of Muḥammad himself, and this even the Wahhābīs
admit, who at the same time condemn the extravagances of the Howling
and Dancing Darveshes of Turkistan, Turkey, and Egypt.

A chapter is devoted to the Prophet’s injunctions on the subject in all large

books of traditions, called Bābu ʾẕ-Ẕikr, from which the following sayings
of Muḥammad have been selected:—

Whenever people sit and remember God, they are surrounded by angels
which cover them with God’s favour, and peace descends upon them, and
God remembers them in that assembly which is near him.

Verily there are angels who move to and fro on the roads and seek for the
rememberers of God, and when they find an assembly remembering God,
they say to one another, “Come ye to that which ye were seeking.” Then the
angels cover them with their wings as far as the lowest heaven, called the
region of the world. The Prophet said:—When the angels go to the court of
God, God asks them, while knowing better than they, “What do my servants
say and do?” Then the angels say, “They are reciting the Tasbīḥ, the Takbīr,
the Taḥmīd, and the Tamjīd for Thee.” And God says, “Have they seen
Me?” The angels say, “No, by God, they have not seen Thee.” Then God
says, “What would their condition be if they had seen Me?” The angels say,
“If they had seen Thee, they would be more energetic in worshipping Thee
and in reciting the Tamjīd, and they would be more excessive in repeating
the Tasbīḥ.” God says, “Then what do they want?” The angels say,
“Paradise.” Then God says, “Have they seen Paradise?” The angels say,
“We swear by God they have not.” Then God says, “What would their state
have been had they seen Paradise?” The angels say, “If they had seen
Paradise, they would be very ambitious for it, and would be excessive
wishers of it, and very great desirers of it.” God says, “What thing is it they
seek protection from?” The angels say, “From hell fire.” God says, “Have
they seen the fire?” The angels say, “No, by God, if they had seen the fire
——.” God says, “How would they have been had they seen the fire?” The
angels say, “If they had seen the fire, they would be great runners from it,
and would be great fearers of it.” Then God says, “I take ye as witnesses
that verily I have pardoned them.” One of the angels said, “There is a
person amongst them who is not a rememberer of Thee, and is only come
on account of his own needs.”

There is a polish for everything that takes rust, and the polish for the heart
is the remembrance of God, and there is no act that redeems from God’s
punishments so much as the remembrance of Him. The Companions said,
“Is not fighting with the infidels also like this?” He said, “No, although he
fights until his sword be broken.”

“Shall I not inform you of an action which is better for you than fighting
with infidels and cutting off their heads, and their cutting off yours?” The
Companions said, “Yes, inform us.” The Prophet said, “These actions are
remembering God.”
ʿAbdullāh ibn Aus said:—An ʿArabī came to the Prophet and asked,
“Which is the best of men?” The Prophet said, “Blessed is the person whose
life is long and whose actions are good.” The ʿArabī said, “O Prophet!
which is the best of actions, and the most rewarded?” He said, “The best of
actions is this, that you separate from the world, and die whilst your tongue
is moist in repeating the name of God.”

A man said, “O Prophet of God, really the rules of Islām are many, tell me a
thing by which I may lay hold of rewards.” The Prophet said, “Let your
tongue be always moist in the remembrance of God.”

“Verily there are ninety-nine names of God; whosoever counts them up

shall enter into Paradise.” And in another tradition it is added, “God is Witr
and like Witr.”

When Ẕū ʾn-Nūn (Jonah) the prophet prayed his Lord, when he was in the
fish’s belly, he said, “There is no Deity but Thee. I extol Thy holiness.
Verily I am of the unjust ones.” And a Mussulman who supplicates God
with this petition will have his prayer granted.

The best expressions are these four: Subhāna Allahi, al-Hamdu Lillāhi, La
ilāha illā ʾllāhu, and Allāhu akbar; and it does not matter with which of
them you begin.

Verily I like repeating these four expressions: O Holy God! Praise be to

God! There is no deity but God! and God is Great! better than anything
upon which the sun shines.

No one can bring a better deed on the Day of Resurrection (unless he shall
have said the like or added to it) than he who has recited, “O Holy God!
Praise be to Thee!” one hundred times every morning and evening.

There are two expressions light upon the tongue and heavy in the scale of
good works, and they are, “O Holy God! Praise be to Thee!” and “O Holy
God! the Mighty One!”
That person who shall say, “There is no deity but God, who has no partner,
to whom is dominion and praise and power,” one hundred times, shall
receive rewards equal to the emancipating of ten slaves; and one hundred
good actions shall be written for him, and one hundred of his sins shall be
blotted out; and those words shall be a protection to him from the devil and
his wickedness, in that day in which he shall have repeated them, until the
night. Nor can anyone perform a better deed for the Day of Resurrection
than this, unless he has done even more.

Moses said, “O my Lord, teach me how I am to call upon Thee.” And God
said, “O Moses, recite ‘There is no deity but God!’ ” Then Moses said, “O
my Lord, every one of Thy people say this.” And God said, “O Moses, if
the seven heavens and their inhabitants and the seven earths were put into
one scale, and this expression, ‘There is no deity but God,’ into another,
these words would exceed in weight.”

Reciting “O Holy God” is half the scale of good works, and reciting “God
be praised,” fills the scale. The recital of “There is no deity but one,”
removes the curtain between the worshipper and his God.

He who recites with an unsullied heart “There is no deity but God,” shall
have the doors of heaven open for him until he reaches the throne of God,
as long as he abstains from great sins.

The ejaculation, “There is no power and strength but in God,” is medicine

for ninety-nine pains, the least of which is melancholy.

“There are two qualities which, being practised by anyone, shall cause him
to enter Paradise; they are small and easy, and it is easy for anyone to
practise them. One of them is this: saying ‘God is holy’ ten times after
every prayer, ‘Praised be God’ ten times, and ‘God is great’ ten times.” And
verily I saw the Prophet counting these words on his hand, and he would
say, “Then these words are one hundred and fifty with the tongue in the day
and night, but they are one thousand and five hundred in the scale of
actions, reckoning ten for one. And the second is this: when he goes to his
bed-chamber, let him say, ‘God is holy,’ and ‘God be praised,’ and ‘God is
great,’ then that is one hundred on the tongue and a thousand in the scales.
Then which of you is it that commits two thousand five hundred vices in the
day and night, so that these words may cover them?” The Companions said,
“If when we repeat these words we have so many rewards, why should we
not say them?” The Prophet said, “The Devil comes to one of you when at
prayers and says to him, ‘Remember so-and-so,’ till you have finished your
prayers; and the Devil comes to you in your bed-chamber, and is always
making you sleep.”

az̤-Z̤ ILLU ʾL-AUWAL ( ‫الظل االول‬‎). “The first shade.” A Ṣūfī term
for al-ʿAqlu ʾl-Auwal. [sufi.]

Z̤ ILLU ʾLLĀH ( ‫ظل هللا‬‎ ). “The Shade of God.” A Ṣūfī term for the
Insānu ʾl-Kāmil, or the “perfect man.” [sufi.]

az-ZILZĀL ( ‫الزلزال‬‎ ). “The Earthquake.” The title of the xcixth Sūrah

of the Qurʾān, beginning with the words “When the earth shall quake with
its quaking.”

ẔIMMAH ( ‫ذمة‬‎ ), pl. ẕimam, from the root ẕamm, “to blame.” A
compact, covenant, or contract, a league or treaty, any engagement or
obligation, because the breaking thereof necessitates blame; and a right or
due, for the neglect of which one is to be blamed. The word is also
synonymous with amān, in the sense of security of life and property,
protection or safeguard, and promise of such; hence ahlu ʾẕ-ẕimmah, or,
with suppression of the noun ahlu, simply aẕ-ẕimmah, the people with
whom a compact or covenant has been made, and particularly the Kitābīs,
or the people of the book, i.e. Jews and Christians, and the Majūsī or
Sabeans, who pay the poll-tax called jazyah. [jazyah.] An individual of this
class—namely, a free non-Muslim subject of a Muslim Government, who
pays a poll- or capitation-tax, for which the Muslims are responsible for his
security, personal freedom, and religious toleration—is called ẕimmī (see
the following article).

In the Qurʾān, the word ẕimmah occurs once, in the sense of clientship, or
good faith, as opposed to ties of blood. Sūrah ix. 7–10 :—

“How can they who add gods to God be in league with God and with His
Apostle, save those with whom ye made a league at the sacred temple? So
long as they are true to you, be ye true to them: verily, God loveth those
who fear Him.

“How can they? since if they prevail against you, they will not regard, in
their dealing with you, either ties of blood or good faith: With their mouths
they content you, but their hearts are averse, and most of them are perverse
doers.

“They sell the signs of God for a mean price, and turn others aside from his
way: of a truth, evil is it that they do!

“They respect not with a believer either ties of blood or good faith; and
these are the transgressors.”

In modern language, the word ẕimmah has frequently the meaning of

conscience. (Compare Lane’s Arabic Dictionary, in loco.)
ẔIMMĪ ( ‫ذمى‬‎ ), a member of the Ahlu ʾẕ-Ẕimmah, a non-Muslim
subject of a Muslim Government, belonging to the Jewish, Christian, or
Sabean creed, who, for the payment of a poll- or capitation-tax, enjoys
security of his person and property in a Muḥammadan country.

One of the most urgent duties enjoined by Muḥammad upon the Muslim or
true believer, was the Jihād fī Sabīli ʾllāhi, or exertion in the road of God,
i.e. warfare for the spread of Islām, amongst the infidels within and without
Arabia [jihad]; thus the whole world came to be regarded as divided into
two great portions, the Dāru ʾl-Ḥarb and Dāru ʾl-Islām [daru ʾl-harb,
daru ʾl-islam]—the territories of War and the territories of Peace. These
two divisions, one of which represented the land of infidelity and darkness,
the other that of light and faith, were supposed to be in a continual state of
open or latent belligerency, until the Dāru ʾl-Islām should have absorbed the
Dāru ʾl-Ḥarb and faith conquered unbelief. Infidelity, however, admits of
degrees. Its worst shape is idolatry, that is, the worship of idols instead of or
besides the one true God; and this, again, is a crime most abominable on the
part of Arabs, “since the Prophet was sent amongst them, and manifested
himself in the midst of them, and the Qurʾān was delivered down in their
language.” Of an equally atrocious character is the infidelity of apostates,
“because they have become infidels, after having been led into the way of
faith, and made acquainted with its excellence.” In the case of neither,
therefore, is a compromise admissible; they must accept or re-embrace the
faith, or pay with their lives the full penalty of their crime.

With regard to the idolaters of a non-Arabic or ʿAjam country, which latter

expression in the times of early Islām particularly applied to the Persian
Empire, ash-Shāfiʿī maintains that destruction is incurred by them also; but
the other learned doctors agree that it is lawful to reduce them to slavery,
thus allowing them, as it were, a respite during which it may please God to
direct them into the right path, but making, at the same time, their persons
and substance subservient to the cause of Islām.
The least objectionable form of infidelity in the eyes of Muḥammad and his
followers, is that of the Kitābīs or people of the Book (ahlu ʾl-kitāb), i.e. the
Jews, as possessors of the Old Testament, or Taurāt, and the Christians, to
whom, moreover, the Injīl (Gospel) was revealed. As they are not guilty of
an absolute denial, but only of a partial perversion of the truth, only part of
the punishment for disbelief is their due, and it is imposed upon them in the
shape of a tribute, called poll- or capitation-tax [jazyah], by means of
which they secure protection for their property, personal freedom, and
religious toleration from the Muslim Government. The same privilege is
extended to the Majūsī or Sabeans, whose particular form of worship was
more leniently judged by Muḥammad and the Traditionists than that of the
idolaters of Persia.

This is the state of things if a country inhabited by such infidels be

conquered by a Muslim army: theoretically, the inhabitants, together with
their wives and children, are considered as plunder and property of the
State, and it would be lawful to reduce them to slavery. In practice,
however, the milder course prevails, and by paying the stipulated
capitation-tax, the subdued people become, in the quality of Ẕimmīs, free
subjects of the conquering power, whose condition is but little inferior to
that of their Muslim fellow-subjects.

The relations of an alien or Ḥarbī—that is, one who belongs to the people of
the Dāru ʾl-ḥarb—to a Muslim community which he visits, in time of peace,
for the sake of traffic or any other legitimate purpose, are regulated by that
high conception of the duties of hospitality, which was innate with the
ancient Arab, and which prompted him to defend and honour even a mortal
enemy, as soon as he might have crossed as a chance guest the threshold of
his tent.

On entering the territory, an alien can claim a guest’s protection from the
first met Muslim, be it even the lowest peasant, and having obtained this
protection, he is entitled to remain in the country unmolested for the term of
a whole year. The authorities, however, must within the year give him
notice that, if he should remain until its completion, capitation-tax will be
imposed upon him, and in such notice the permission for his stay may be
limited to some months only, if for some reason or other it should appear
advisable or necessary to do so. If the alien continue in the country beyond
the full or limited time prescribed, he becomes ipso facto liable to the
capitation-tax, and if, after thus becoming a Ẕimmī, he be desirous of
returning to his own country, he may be prevented, as now being bound to
the Muslim Government by a contract of fealty. In similar manner an alien
becomes a Ẕimmī upon purchasing tribute land and paying the impost on it,
and is then liable to capitation-tax for the ensuing year. An alien woman
turns Ẕimmīyah by marrying a Ẕimmī, because thereby she undertakes to
reside in the Muḥammadan state. (See Hamilton’s Hidāyah, vol. ii. p. 196.)

Ẕimmīs do not subject themselves to the laws of Islām, either with respect
to things which are merely of a religious nature, such as fasting and prayer,
or with respect to those temporal acts which, though contrary to the
Muḥammadan religion, may be legal by their own, such as the sale of wine
or swine’s flesh. The construction of places of worship in the Muslim
territory is unlawful for them, unless within their own houses, but if
churches and synagogues originally belonging to Christians and Jews be
destroyed or fall to decay, they are at liberty to rebuild and repair them. This
is the rule with regard to cities, because, as the tokens of Islām, such as
public prayer, festivals, &c., appear there, Ẕimmīs should not be permitted
to exhibit the tokens of infidelity in the face of them; in villages and
hamlets, on the other hand, where the tokens of Islām do not appear, there is
no occasion to prevent the construction of Christian and Jewish places of
worship. (See Hamilton’s Hidāyah, vol. ii. p. 219.)

Save some slight restrictions with regard to dress and equipage, Ẕimmīs are
held in all transactions of daily life pretty much on a footing of equality
with Muslims. Like children, women and slaves, a Ẕimmī has no legal share
in the booty, but only a discretionary allowance out of it, if he has taken part
in the fight. If he has acted as a guide, and his services as such have been
attended with any eminent advantage, he may, however, receive even a
larger share than a Muḥammadan combatant. (Hamilton’s Hidāyah, vol. ii.
p. 178.)