HISTORY, PRINCIPLES AND

FOUNDATION OF PHYSICAL
EDUCATION

B.P.Ed First Year

Compiled by
Dr. T. Jayabal
Associate Professor

Sri Ramakrishna Mission Vidyalaya

Maruthi College of Physical Education
SRKV Post, Periyanaickenpalayam, Coimbatore - 641 020

Course Material for Students – Not for Sale

 Maruthi College of Physical Education

SYLLABUS - SEMESTER-1 CC-101

HISTORY, PRINCIPLES AND FOUNDATION OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION

Unit - 1: Introduction
o Meaning, Definition and Scope of Physical Education
o Aims and Objective of Physical Education
o Importance of Physical Education in present era.
o Misconceptions about Physical Education.
o Relationship of Physical Education with General Education
o Physical Education as an Art and Science.
Unit- 2 - Historical Development of Physical Education in India
o Indus Valley Civilization Period. (3250 BC - 2500 BC)
o Vedic Period (2500 BC - 600 BC)
o Early Hindu Period (600 BC - 320 AD) and Later Hindu Period (320 AD – 1000 AD)
o Medieval Period (1000 AD - 1757 AD)
o British Period (Before 1947)
o Physical Education in India (After 1947)
o Contribution of Akhadas and Vyayamshals
o Y.M.C.A. and its contributions.
Unit- 3- Foundation of Physical Education
o Philosophical foundation
Idealism, Pragmatism, Naturalism, Realism, Humanism, Existentialism and Indian Philosophy and Culture.
o Fitness and wellness movement in the contemporary perspectives
o Sports for all and its role in the maintenance and promotion of fitness.
Unit-4- Biological Principles of Physical Education
o Growth and development
o Age and gender characteristics
o Heredity and environment
o Body Types .
o Anthropometric differences, differences in boys and girls
o Reciprocal innervations

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Unit-5- Psychological & Sociological Principles of Physical Education

Psychological
o Learning types, learning curve
o Laws and principles of learning
o Attitude, interest, cognition, emotions and sentiments
Sociological
o Society and culture
o Social acceptance and recognition
o Leadership
o Social integration and cohesiveness
References:
Bucher, C. A. (n.d.) Foundation of physical education. St. Louis: The C.V. Mosby Co.
Deshpande, S. H. (2014). Physical Education in Ancient India. Amravati: Degree college of Physical education.
Mohan, V. M. (1969). Principles of physical education. Delhi: Metropolitan Book Dep.
Nixon, E. E. & Cozen, F.W. (1969). An introduction to physical education. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders Co.
Obertuffer, (1970). Delbert physical education. New York: Harper & Brothers Publisher.
Sharman, J. R. (1964). Introduction to physical education. New York:
A.S. Barnes & Co. William, J. F. (1964). The principles of physical education. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders Co.

iv History, Principles and Foundation of Physical Education

 CONTENTS

UNIT- I INTRODUCTION 1

UNIT- II HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN INDIA 16

UNIT -III FOUNDATION OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION 36

UNIT-IV BIOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION 52

UNIT-V PSHYCHOLOGICAL & SOCIOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES OF

PHYSICAL EDUCATION 61

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UNIT – I INTRODUCTION
MEANING AND DEFINITION OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION
The meaning of physical education is always misunderstood. It is an education which develops harmonious
growth and development of the child. It develops all the powers of an individual-physical, mental, moral as well as
social. According to Comenius, “Education is the development of the whole man. The ultimate end of man is happiness
with God.” So physical education is considered as education of the body which enables an individual to grow
and develop fully. Physical activities are the educational tools that promote optimum growth and development.
Physical education is not only doing physical activities but also related with health education, recreation, anatomy
physiology, psychology and sociology.
Some important definitions of Physical Education
According to Charles A Bucher, “Physical education is an integral ^ part of the total education process and
has as its aim the development of physically, mentally, emotionally and socially fit citizen through the medium
» of physical activities which have been selected with a view to realizing these outcomes.”
According to Irwin, “Physical education is a programme of physical activities that develops health
in youth through various organic systems of the body; develops skills in physical activities which
has implication for enjoyment, emotional development, recreation and the optimum development
of the human organism.”
According to H.C. Buck,”Physical education is the part of general education programme, which is considered
with growth, development and education of children through the medium of big muscle activities. Physical
activities are the tools, ‘they are so selected and conducted as to influence every child’s life physically, mentally,
emotionally and morally.”
According to Delbert Oberteuffer,”Physical education is the sum of those experiences which come to the
individual through movement.”
According to J.P. Thomas,“Physical education is the education through physical activities for the development
of total personality of the child and its fulfilment and perfection ,in body, mind and spirit.”
According to Clark. W. Hetherington,”Physical education is that phase of education which is concerned, first,
with the organization and leadership of children in big muscle activities, to gain the development and adjustment
inherent in the activities according to social standards, and second, with the leadership of the activities so that
the educational process may go on without growth handicaps.”
According to C.C. Cowell, ”Physical education is the social process of change in the behaviour of human
organism, originating primarily from the stimulus of big-muscle play and related activities.”
According to J.F. William,”Physical education is the sum of man’s physical activities selected as to kind and
conducted as to outcomes.”
According to J.B.Nash,”Physical EldUcation is that field of education which deals with big muscle activities
and their related responses.”
According to Cassidy,”Physical education is the sum of the changes in the individual caused by experiences
centering in motor activity.”

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According to Nixon and Cozens, “ Physical education should be defined as that phase of the whole process of
education which is concerned with vigorous muscular activities and related responses and with the modifications
in the individual resultant from these responses.”
According to Marshal & Rees, “Physical education is but one aspect of the larger problem of education in
general, and any system which divorces, or tends to divorce, the physical from the moral and intellectual aspects
of life, is thoroughly unsound.”
According to Sharman, “Physical Education should help to develop skills and attitudes which will be
conducive to the wise use of leisure time and provide opportunities for emotional control living according to
acceptable social standards and self expression.”
According to Brownhill and Hagman, “Physical education is the accumulation of wholesome experiences
through participation in large muscular activities that promote optimum growth and development.”
According to AAPHER, “ Physical education is the way of education through physical activities which are
selected and carried on with regard to values in human growth, development and behaviour.”
SCOPE OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION
An extent to what any discipline can reach is said to be the scope of that particular discipline. Physical
Education having very wide scope, it is not limited to mere physical activities or physical exercises. Physical
education include every aspect that lead individual to all round development. History of various Nations has
proved physical Education is in cultural heritage of human beings. Physical Education is not limited to school or
college curricular but has successfully influenced human beings in all walk of life, and in every field of development.
Age, sex or physical abilities of individuals have no bar as far as physical educational programmes are concerned.
� Scope of physical Education covers following:-

� Games and sports

� Corrective exercises

� Basic stances and exercises

� Rhythmic activities/programmes

� Social Awareness programmes

� Educational institution curriculum

� Scientific Methodology

� Rehabilitative programmes
Games and sports:
Games and sports widen the scope of physical Education to extreme. It includes every fame of football,
cricket soccer chess etc.
(Team game , individual game ) or in other words it includes any variety of game or sport e.g. combative,
ball game, indigenous etc. physical Education has its influence in every part of it. Any skill display includes
physically Education; Physical itself clears its scope in this field, but this merely not the knowledge of physical

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activities. The load planning, the intensity of sports activity, playing technique, tactics and making of strategies
all includes effective educational processes given by physical education. Therefore Games and sports cannot be
taken apart from its scope.
Corrective Exercises and Rehabilitative programme:
Good posture makes individual work efficiently. This knowledge of correct and good basic posture is
presented effectively by physical Educationist. Even a wrong sitting habit can lead to bad posture, many times
work demands results in bad posture, physical education clears the basic concept about the posture and presents
the effective exercises to overcome bad postures.
Basic stances and Exercises:
Every productive skill needs good and accurate position of the , athlete. Physical Education introduces to
us different exercises for different skills for better performance. Knowledge about the stances, grips, action and
execution of the skills assists in enhancing the performance. Therefore physical education has its effective and
successful scope in the field of physical Education.
Recreational programmes:
Today’s world every individual needs to recharge oneself to become more productive even after heavy
workload. Physical Educational processes include Recreational activities as its essential programme. After
the heavy work out every human wants to feel relaxed and recreational, physical Education introduces many
Recreational activities that refreshes and recharges the individual. This scope of physical Education on the other
hand contributing a lot in mankind.
Rhythmic Activities:
Rhythmic activities include folk dances, aerobics, lezium etc. which mainly enhances the coordinative
ability of an individual. We cannot neglect the fact that many of these Rhythmic Activities is integral part of our
Indian culture like Bhangra and other folk dances. Therefore it is validly said that physical Education is in cultural
heritage of India.
Social Awareness programmes:
Physical Education introduces us about Hygiene, sex education, prevention from injuries etc. which ultimately
proves very assisting to society.
Educational Institutions curriculum:
Educational institutions having physical activities as essential part of curriculum. This mainly includes
‘INTRAMEURAL AND EXTRAMEURAL PROGRAMMES” physical training through activities like calisthenics, Bhartium
and other mass training exercises clears the wide scope of physical Education.
Scientific Methodology:
Bio-mechanics, sports physiology, sports science, sports psychology etc. newly introduced subjects in the
field of physical Education widens its scope in the scientific field of Education. Every day new methodology is
being introduced for the enhancement of sports field. The urge to grow faster and achieve new heights in the
field of sports no doubt increasing the scope of physical Education.
Rehabilitative programme:
For temporary-injured athlete it is very important to maintain his/her fitness level. Physical education widen
its scope by introducing Rehabilitative exercises which aims to reduce the recovery period of injured athlete and

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also maintains the fitness components (strength, speed, endurance, flexibility etc) that ultimately leads for better
performance after recovery).
Coaching:
The wide scope of physical education also covers Coaching. In the field of Coaching knowledge of physical
education makes coaches more empowered and efficient. Many basic aspects of coaching is easily understood
by the physically educationists and the theoretical subjects -matter as well as practical aspects are widely covered
in Physical education.
Aims of Physical education:
To provide skilled leadership and adequate facilities which will afford an oppurtunity for the individual or
group to act in situations that are physically wholesome, mentally stimulating and satisfying, and socially sound.
OBJECTIVES
The objectives will help the physical educators to understand better what they are trying to achieve.
If the objectives are understood, the physical education will know through what activities those are to be
achieved.

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The objectives will help to understand the worth of the field.

Objectives will help to interpret better the worth of the field to general educator and a lay person even.
Objectives will help to know and appreciate the outcomes to be achieved.
Various physical educators have proposed a number of objectives but the following objectives can be
termed as the common.
OBJECTIVES OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION
Physical Development objectives (Organic Development):
The objectives of physical development deals with the program of activities that develop various organic
systems of the body. It results in the ability to resist fatigue, the ability to recover and the ability to resist fatigue,
the ability to recover an dthe ability to sustain adaptive effort. The value of this objective is based on the fact
that the individual will be more active, have better performance and be healthier. The term organic refers to
the digestive circulatory, excretory, heat regulatory, respiratory and other systems of the human body. These
systems are stimulated and trained through activities such as hanging, climbing running, throwing, carrying and
jumping. With vigorous muscular activity, several beneficial results take place. The trained heart provides better
nourishment to the entire body. The trained heart beats slower than the untrained heart and pumps more blood
per stroke, with the result that more blood is dolivered to the cella and there in better removal of waste products.
The trained individual can performa work for a longer period of time, with less expenditure of energy and much
more efficiently. Therefore physical education should aid in the development of the trained individual so that he
will be better able to perform the routine tasks and live a healthful and happy existence.
2. Motor Development objectives (Neuro Muscular Development)
The motor development objective is concerned with developing body awareness and making useful
physical movement with as little expenditure of energy as possible and with being graceful in the movement.
Effective motor movement depends on a harmonious working together of the muscular and nervous system. The
neuromuscular skill is t perform with a degree of perfection. The objective to develop as many skills as possible
so that the individuals interests will be wide and varied. Individuals enjoy by participating in activities in which
they are skilful. The development of skill contributes to confidence, brings recognition, enhance physical and
mental health makes participating safer, cuts down expenditure of energy and contributes to the aesthetic sense.
3. Cognitive Development Objective:
The cognitive development objective deals with the accumulation of a body of knowledge and the ability
to think and to interpret this knowledge. Physical activities must be learned, hence there is a need for thinking
on the part of the intellectual mechanism. The individuals not only should learn co-ordination but also should
acquire a knowledge of rules, techniques and strategies involved in physical activities. Furthermore, a knowledge
of followership, leadership, courage, self-reliance, assistance to others, safety, and adaptation to group patterns
is important.
4. Social Development objective:
The social development objective is concerned with helping an individual in making personal adjustments,
group adjustments and adjustments as a member of society. Each individual has certain basic social needs that
was be met. These include a feeling of belonging recognition that their physique and physical skills have for
their social change. When these needs are met, the individual becomes well adjusted socially. Through physical

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education, individual should learn social qualities such as cooperation, friendship, courtesy, sympathy, honesty,
aspect for authority etc.
5. Affective Development Objective:
Another factor that should not be overlooked is the affective development. Physical education should be
concerned with helping young people to clarify and think through their value judgments, appreciations and
attitudes. Much can be done to motivate boys and girls to analyse and assess their own values and attitudes.
IMPORTANCE OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION
Physical education has become a part of school curriculum all over (the world. It explains about body
movement and other physical activities. It involves variety of activities including individual and team sports.
Participation in various games develops cooperation. The need and importance of physical education are as
follows :
A. Harmonious growth and development : Harmonious growth and development is the most important
objective of physical education. All living things grow, A tiny seed can grow into a huge tree. Adult elephants are
60 times heavier than baby elephants. Every living organism consists of cells. The cells can multiply and divide
to form other cells. Physical education also has relation with growth and development. Exercise may promote
muscle strength. The regular physical training can improve various organs.
B. Development of physical fitness : Through games and sports development of body takes place. A
person physically fit can help others whenever his help is required. The various components of physical fitness are
speed, strength, endurance, flexibility and agility. Physical fitness enables a person to perform vigorous activities.
Generally physical fitness and good health are considered synonymous but it is wrong. A healthy person may be
physically unfit because he may be lacking in some component of physical fitness. Regular vigorous exercise also
increases the efficiency and capacity of an individual to lead a fruitful life. Therefore vigorous physical activities
should be done for the physical growth and development.
C. Emotional Development : Many competitive sports develop the emotional qualities which are very
essential for socialization. For example a boxer while playing is emotionally agressive but after the last bell he
shakes his hands with the opponent by converting his anger into affection. Hence we can say that sports helps
a lot for the emotional development.
D. Development of cooperative attitude : Specially in team games all the players practise together to win
jointly. The lesson of cooperation is learned within the team. The tactics involved in team games are successful
due to cooperation of the players, e.g. in hockey, a player scores a goal with the cooperation of his team mates.
E. Development of Sympathetic attitude : While playing if somebody gets injured, all the players display
affection and sympathy towards him. It can be observed in the cricket match also whenever any player gets
injured all the players rush towards him sympathetically.
F. Channelization of Surplus energy : It is evident from surplus energy theory that every individual
possesses extra energy which tends to play. Sports and games provide a healthy outlet of surplus energy’ otherwise
this surplus energy can tend somebody towards antisocial acitivity. So the proper channelization of energy helps
in socialization process.
G. Development of Discipline : We have to play under rules and regulations of the game in discipline. So
games and sports develop habit of discipline which is also an important social quality. Fear of disqualification in
the match also directs a player to remain disciplined in spite of emotional arousal.

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H. Development of National Integration : Physical education and sports help a lot in the process of National
integration. Number of playful activities also create feeling of brotherhood. We can attain National integration
through games and sports.
Games and sports help a lot in promoting National integration as many opportunities are given to the
citizens for the development of qualities which promote national integration.
I. Development of Socialisation : An individual can develop many social qualities through games
and sports like dutifulness, discipline, loyalty, cooperation, sincerity, tolerance, regularity, punctuality,
morality, etc. which promote the feelings of friendship and brotherhood. Hence we can say that games
and sports contribute a lot towards the formation of healthy society.
J. Knowledge of Health Education : Healthful living requires an intensive and extensive understanding
of health. Health education guides a person to lead a fruitful life. Health education acts as public relations
which gives information about health and disease. It is very essential for every community.
Health education informs the people about the prevention of disease particularly in epidemics. It motivates
the people to develop their habits and ways of living. For example, drinking of contaminated water leads to many
health hazards which can be prevented by the knowledge of safe drinking water.
K. Knowledge of Human Body : Physical education provides knowledge and understanding of various
systems of the human body. It enables a person to know about effects of exercise on various systems of the body.
This knowledge can help an individual to protect his body from various diseases.
L. Development of leadership : There are many opportunities to lead in the field of physical education,
like captain of cricket team who acts wisely, sincerely, impartially and effectively. Even leadership training is
provided when a leader is appointed for warming up. Sometimes organisation of competitions also helps in the
development of leadership qualities.
It is clear from the above important that physical activities lead to the development of harmonious growth and
development of the body. In the conclusion we can say that physical education and sports should be popularised
on massive scale and should reach even the rural areas.
MINSCONCEPTIONS ABOUT PHYSICAL EDUCATION
Physical education is so vast a subject that it is mostly misunderstood In the ancient time, physical education
was considered as physical training only. It was made essential for the training of defence personnel. Physical
training was given to warriors only. The aim of physical training was to produce tough persons who can
help in fighting war and patural calamities. At that time physical education was only limited to physical
training. There are following misconceptions about physical education which are still prevalent nowadays :
A. Wastage of time : Many parents think that participation in physical » activities is just wastage of
time. However this opinion is totally wrong as participation in physical activities develops body. The mind
and body “ are two inter-related aspects of the same entity. A proverb, ‘sound mind - in a sound body’ also
supports psycho-physical unity of man. Mind and body are like two wheels of a bull cart. In the absence of
one wheel the effect is found on smother wheel. Hence if physical condition of the body is disturbed, the mental
condition of the body is also affected. For example a physically fatigued person cannot do mental work properly,
on the other side mentally fatigued person cannot do physical work properly.
B. Physical Education is considered as participation in games only: Most of the people think that physical
education is only participation in games. However physical education enables a person to maintain health and

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fitness. Many qualities like love, affection, tolerance, obedience, cooperation etc., are learned through participation
in games.
C. Poor social status : Until recently physical educationists had poor social status. However this perception
is changing day by day. Sports persons are given social awards like Arjuna Award which can uplift the social status
as society has started recognising sports personalities.
D. Physical education and Career : Most of the people do not opt physical education as career, as they are
not aware of its vast area. However physical education has many specialised branches like physiology of exercise,
kinesiology, sports anthropometry, physiotherapy etc. which can be opted as a good career.
E. Indiscipline : It is also observed that sports persons are considered as indisciplined. Physical education
on the other hand trains a person to remain disciplined. We have to play under rules and regulations of game
in discipline. So physical education develops habit of discipline which is alsa an important social quality. Fear of
disqualification in the match also directs a player to remain disciplined in spite of emotional arousal.
F. Wastage of money : Still it is thought that games require a lot of sports equipment which is considered
as wastage of money. However sports and games provide a healthy outlet of surplus energy, otherwise this
surplus energy can tend somebody towards anti social activities. So the proper channelisation of energy helps
in educating the child.
RELATIONSHIP OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION WITH GENERAL EDUCATION
Physical Education has been accepted as an integral part of Education. The physical Education teachers work
for the achievement of the ultimate purpose of general education. Let us discuss how far a Physical Education
teacher can help in achieving the objectives of general education.
Education contributes to the development and advancement of the nation’s culture. Educational institutions
play a primary role in the achievement of intellectual skill, knowledge, understanding and appreciations. Physical
Education as a phase of the total educational process helps in realising these purposes.
Before we evaluate the role of Physical Education in the achievement of objectives of general education,
we should understand the meaning of education and its objectives.
The term ‘education’ means different things to different individuals. The simple meaning of education is
a change, modification of behaviour or an adjustment on the part of the student as a result of experiences. A
number of definitions made on educations are
A training process that comes about through study and instruction.
A series of experiences that enable a person to better understand new experiences.
John Dewey, an educator defines education as “the reconstruction of events which compose the lives of
individuals so that new events become more purposeful and more meaningful” Education is a ‘doing’ phenomenon.
One learns through doing. Education takes place in the classroom, in the library, on the playground, in the
gymnasium and at home.
The primary goals of education are dissemination of knowledge, the liberation of minds, the development
of skills, and the establishment of wholesome attitudes which are useful in the improvement of the society. The
primary goals of general education are individual development, with emphasis on behaviour and social usefulness
together with intellectual development as an outcome of learning. The important educational objectives are civic
responsibility, the learning of respect, tolerance and self responsibility, development of intelligence and effective
thinking, knowledge of body, knowledge f health and training of body and spirit.

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Physical Education plays an important role in the education process. The mind and the body represent a unit
in human beings. One gives strength to the other and both function harmoniously in the educated person. When
physical education is applied to education, it can readily be seen it plays an instrumental role in the education
process. Physical education with its emphasis on building a physically, emotionally, mentally and socially fit
society, plays an important role in education. The role of physical education can be discussed in relation to three
domains namely cognitive, affective and psychomotor.
1. Cognitive Domain’s
The objective of cognitive development is concerned with knowledge and understanding. Physical Education
contributes to cognitive development in the following ways.
Physical Education programmes contribute to academic achievement by providing daily movement
experiences and instructions in selected basic motor activities, by providing knowledge and modifying behaviours
in regard to good health practices, and by aiding in the process of social and emotional development.
Physical Education contributes to knowledge of exercise, health and disease, instructions are given about the
importance of nutrition, Physical activity rest and sleep. Physical education provides knowledge and understanding
relating to the various organic systems. Physical Education contributes to an understanding of the role of Physical
activity and sports in the culture. They affect the country’s politics, government, economy and educational systems.
Sports and physical activity dominate the newspapers, magazines, radio and television.
Affective Domain
The affective domain is primarily concerned with interests, appreciations, attitudes and values. Following re
some of the contributions of Physical Education to this domain. Physical Education contributes to an appreciation
of beauty. The human body is a thing of beauty if it has been properly developed. Nothing is more beautiful than
perfectly proportioned and developed human body. The beauty of movement is developed through Physical
activity.
Physical education helps in the formulation of an individual’s philosophy of life. Through the medium of
Physical activity, guidance is given as to what is right and proper. Physical Education program stresses human
welfare. When an activity is planned, the needs and welfare of the participants are taken into considerations. Play
experiences offer an opportunity for children a rich social experiences which help to develop child’s personality.
Every educated person should have the characteristics of courtesy, politeness, fair play and other social behaviours.
Good training in Physical Education activities provide opportunities to develop the characteristics of courtesy,
politeness, fair play and good sportsmanship. Physical education bring children and youth from all walks of life,
all creeds, colours, and races.
According to J.B. Nasls Physical Education is that phase of the whole field of Education that deals with bit
muscle activities and their related responses.
Physical education is concerned with the acquisition of motor skills, and the maintenance of fitness for
optional health as well as attainment of knowledge and the development of positive attitudes towards Physical
activity.
In recent years there has been considerable discussion regarding whether Physical Education is the best
name for this field. Other names that have been suggested include movement education, kinesiology, sports
education, physical fitness, sport, applied physical sciences and motor education. The term that is used widely at

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present time is physical education and sport. The various sub-disciplines of physical education are sport sociology,
Biomechanics, sports medicine, Exercise physiology, sport Philosophy, History, Pedagogy, Sport Psychology, Motor
Learning, Motor development, adopted Physical education, Health related fitness, performance related fitness,
Health, Recreation and athletics.

Physical education, with its emphasis on building a physically, emotionally, mentally, and socially fit society,
plays an important role in general education. A heavy responsibility rests upon the shoulders of those who spend
a large share of their time with the youth of today. If experiences are provided that are satisfying, successful, and
directed toward enriching an individual’s life, these purposes of education will be accomplished. Physical education
teachers have within their power the ability to aid in the fulfillment of the objectives of self-realization, human
relationship, economic efficiency, and civic responsibility in each individual. Physical education, when applied
to general education, plays an important role in the development of the student. The education that takes place
on the playground, in the swimming pool, and in the gymnasium can help considerably in accomplishing these
purposes.
A fuller description of the role of physical education in the educational process is needed at this point. For
purposes of organization such a discussion may be grouped under four headings, which have been adapted from
the Educational Policies Commission’s list of objectives toward which education is striving.
The objectives of intellectual self-realization are aimed at developing the individual so that he realizes
his potentialities. This development means much more than the accumulation of knowledge. It means that the
individual in the process of constant interaction with his environment has achieved his rightful place, that a
proper relationship has been established, and that he recognizes and associates with what is best in his culture.
It means that education is interested not only in shaping the individual for his future role as a member of society
but is interested also in his development and growth as he progresses toward adult life. Physical education should
contribute to the objectives of intellectual self-realization in the following ways.

1. Physical education should contribute to academic achievement. Research findings indicate that physical
education programs can contribute to academic achievement by providing daily movement experiences
and instruction in selected basic motor activities, consistent with the developmental level of the students;
by promoting physical fitness; by providing knowledge and modifying be-havior in regard to good health
practices; and by aiding in the process of social and emotional development, which leads to a more positive
self-concept. Research findings also indicate that the intellectual, physical, and emotional developments are
closely associated. Endocrinology has shown that mentality changes as body chemistry changes. Biology has
linked the cell to the learning experience. Psychology points to the act that the child’s earliest learnings are
actual and kinesthetic. Just as it is important to teach English so that students can communicate effectively
with one another, history so that they have an understanding of their cultural heritage, and mathematics
so they can understand the technology of our society, it is also important to educate students regarding
their physical selves so they can function most efficiently as human beings. For further explanation of the
evidence to support the relationship between physical education and academic achievement, Psychological
Interpretations of Physical Education.
2. Physical education should contribute to an inquiring mind. An inquiring mind is essential to the educated
person. Only through curiosity is it possible to probe into the makeup of one’s environment.

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The motor mechanism of the child en-ables him to explore, to cruise, and to see his environment. It stimulates
his curiosity. He wants to see what is on the other side of the fence, how hot the stove is, what happens when
he pulls the light cord, what is in the box with the cover, how people react to certain situations, and the like.
Motor activity helps develop the inquiring mind and aids in the solving of problems that at times thwart the
individual. In fact, psychologist Newell C. Kephart, former Executive Director of the Achievement Center for
Children at Purdue University, points out that motor activity is related to higher thought processes. He also
indicates that a child’s behavior cannot function better than the motor abilities upon which it is based.
Today, in education, the independent study movement is becoming more popular in our schools and
colleges. Alexander and Hines,* in their book entitled Independent Study in Secondary Schools, describe
the independent learner as one who makes optimum use of his intellectual and other powers. He is one
who undertakes on his own initiative learning tasks important to him. The student in the independent
study movement desires the opportunity to participate in activities that will provide him with answers to
questions that are perplexing him. Physical education provides the op-portunity for students to participate
in such activities. One may visit a school at 7 A.M. and observe a youngster running around a track with an
interested coach holding a stopwatch for him. Physical education activities open up new fields of curiosity.
The student seeks to discover the answers to such questions as why a vigorous workout and a shower are
exhilarating and why exercise improves his appetite, circulation, respiration, stamina, and endurance; why
Jim can lift his own weight in the air and Dick cannot; why Henry can wield a tennis racquet with great skill;
and why Sally can swim so gracefully. A new and interesting phase of living is opened to the individual
through activity. His inquiring mind is ac-tive, and he seeks the answers to his health and physical problems.
Many opportunities should be provided the student to do independent study in various physical education
activities that interest him.
3. Physical education should contribute to the ability to speak, read, and write effectively. Physical education,
through the various activities that it sponsors, can in-directly help an individual to speak, read, and write
with more effectiveness and clarity. Through the development of a healthy and physically fit body one may
possibly have better poise to command the attention of one’s listeners. Francois Delsarte, a French teacher
of voice and dramatics, pointed this out when he developed a special system of physical exercises that were
aimed at more effective dramatics and singing. This system spread to America, where it was received with a
great deal of interest. Many teachers of oratorical public speaking were in accord with Delsarte’s methods,
combined them with their own ideas, and developed a system of exercises that contributed to health, poise,
grace, and beauty of face and figure.
The ability to read efficiently is impor-tant to an individual’s development. It has been pointed out that there
are three types of illiterates. First, there are those who cannot read; second, those who have mastered the
mechanics of reading but do not use this acquired art; and, third, those who read material of insignificant
value. Physical education can contribute to discrimination in reading by pointing out scientific materials
available in regard to the maintenance and promotion of one’s health and physical fitness. It can discount
the literature of health and physical culture “fad-dists,” quacks, quick-cure artists, and medicine men who
are exploiting the public. It can refer students to sources of information where scientific information may
be obtained. It can develop in the student a critical attitude toward quick health cures and other misleading
advertising that is chronicled daily in newspapers and magazines and broadcast over radio and television.
Through this medium of discrimi-natory reading, physical education can con-tribute to self-realization.

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Physical education should aid an indi-vidual to write effectively. The ability to ex-press one’s views in a clear,
concise man-ner is a medium that contributes immensely to the solving of problems. In the presentation of
physical education reports on activities, in health lessons, and in the writing of examinations, there should
be a constant alertness on the part of the physical education teacher to see that acceptable standards of
written work are followed. This work should not be the sole prerogative of the English profession. Instead,
it is the duty of all educators to utilize every “teachable moment” in the improvement of the writing ability
of their students.
4. Physical education should contribute to knowledge of exercise, health, and disease. The educated person
has an under-standing of the facts pertinent to exercise, health, and disease. To a great degree, a person’s
success is dependent upon his health. His state of health and physical fitness will determine to a great
extent whether or not he succeeds in realizing his potentialities. An individual cannot expect to be a top
executive in the business world if he is sick and stays away from work 2 or 3 days a week. He cannot expect
to achieve stardom in professional athletics without a physically strong and healthy body. He cannot expect
to be accepted by members of his community if his life is controlled by drugs such as heroin and LSD. He
cannot aspire to a high-salaried position in radio, engineering, the ministry, education, advertising, law,
medicine, or dentistry unless his body can stand the rigors of long hours of study and work. He cannot expect
to achieve happiness in living unless he is in good health. There-fore, a knowledge of exercise, health, and
disease is a contributing factor to self-realization so that health obstacles, handicaps, and strains may be
guarded against.
Physical education contributes to this knowledge by instructing the individual in regard to the importance
of nutrition, physical activity, rest, and sleep; by informing him of the dangers of drugs; by exploring with
him the preventive and control measures that exist to guard against disease; by providing opportunities
for vigorous outdoors activity; by motivating the formation of wholesome health attitudes and habits;
by following up the correction of defects; by stressing safety factors for the prevention of accidents; and
by establishing various health services. Through the experiences and knowledge provided by a physical
education program, the objectives of self-realization are brought much closer to attainment.
5. Physical education should contribute to family and community health. The educated person protects his
own health, his dependents’ health, and the health of the individuals within the community where he
resides. The educated person has a knowledge of health and disease and applies these facts to himself, to his
family, and to his community. He sees that his body is cared for in the manner prescribed by the authorities
on health and disease and has periodic health examinations. He gets adequate amounts of exercise, rest,
and sleep; eats the right kind of food; engages in activity conducive to mental as well as physical health;
and sees that others also have the same opportunities to maintain and improva their health in accordance
with his standards. He realizes that health is a product that increases in proportion as it is shared with other
individuals, and he knows that health is everybody’s business. In many ghetto areas where the horror of
drug abuse has taken countless lives, the educated person who has knowledge of such horrors is the one
who can inform members of the community of the dangers to them if they use drugs.
Physical education provides a program of activity to improve the physical and mental health of the individual,
his family, and the entire community. In the schools a planned program of physical activity is offered as
an essential to the optimum body functioning of young people during this developmental period of their

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lives. It enables them to experience many pleasurable emotions and to develop organic power essential
to a healthy, happy, and interesting existence, so that they will not have to turn to antisocial pursuits as an
outlet for their frustrations. The groundwork for adult years is laid during this formative period. Recreational
programs provide facilities and opportunities for the adult to continue, after leaving school, physical activity
adapted to his needs. They offer adults the opportunity to lose themselves in wholesome activity and thus
be relieved of some of the tension experienced in modern day living. Such a program is essential to the
health of all.
6. Physical education should contribute to skill as a participant and spectator in sports. Recognizing that the
body and mind represent a unity in man, the educated person recognizes the value of physical activity.
Sports and physical education activities are an important part of our culture. Furthermore, the stress of
modern day living, with its quest for material possessions, its machine type labor, its sedentary pursuits, and
its competitive nature, has implications for all who would enjoy some of the simple, natural, and wholesome
forms of activity. Modern-day man has been bit-ton by a bug that lias destroyed to some extent his sense
of values in regard to entertainment. Many persons no longer wish to find entertainment through their own
re-sources but, instead, desire to have professionals satisfy these needs. Too frequently they turn to night
clubs, horse races, or games of chance for amusement. The educated person selects the manner in which
he will spend his leisure time with discretion and with regard for enriched living.
Participating in a game of softball, tennis, or badminton or going for a swim not only provides an interesting
and happy experience during leisure hours but at the same time contributes to mental and physical health.
The development of physical skills in all persons rather than in just a few select individuals is an educationally
sound objective and should be encouraged more and more by educators. The so called rec-reational sports
should receive greater emphasis so that activities may be better adapted to the older segment of the
population. Swimming, golf, tennis, camping, and similar activities should occupy a prominent place in all
physical education programs.
Physical education not only develops skill in the participant but at the same time develops an interest
and knowledge of other activities that at times may be engaged in by individuals from the standpoint
of a spectator. Although it seems the benefits from participation would outweigh the benefits of being a
spectator in regard to physical activity, nevertheless many leisure hours may be spent in a wholesome manner
observing a ball game or some other sports activity. The wise person, however, discovers the proper balance
between the amount of time he will utilize as a participant and as a spectator. The balance is destroyed if
a person fails to realize that being a spectator cannot result in the same values for an individual as being a
participant. Physical education can help by supplying a knowledge of various sports so that the role of the
spectator may be more meaningful and interesting.
7. Physical education should contribute to resources for utilizing leisure hours in mental pursuits. The educated
person has mental resources for the utilization of leisure hours. Recreation is not confined to sports and
exercise. Instead, there is a whole game of activities that are more inactive in their nature but that offer
entertainment and relaxation after working hours for a great many people. Such activities as reading,
photography, music, and painting may be included in this group. Physical education contributes here by
providing the material for interesting stories of great athletes, such as Babe Ruth, Jackie Robinson, Glenn
Cunningham, Ben Hogan, and Kareem Jabbar. These individuals, through the stories that have been written
about them,

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allow others to live vicariously their struggles in attaining fame and fortune amidst obstacles that seemed
almost in-surmountable. Physical education offers photography and painting enthusiasts subjects for their
pictures. Everyone has seen works of art that were inspired through some sports event. Physical education
also offers many hobbies. A sport such as fishing motivates a hobby such as tieing flies. Many other examples
could be listed.
8. Physical education should contribute to an appreciation of beauty. The educated person has developed an
appreciation of the beautiful. From the time of early childhood the foundation of an appreciation of beautiful
things can be developed. Architecture, landscapes, paintings, music, furnishings, trees, rivers, and animals
should ring a note of beauty in the mind of the growing child and in the adult.
Physical education has much to offer in the way of beauty. The human body is a thing of beauty if it has
been properly developed. The Greeks stressed the “body beautiful” and performed their exercises and
athletic events in the nude so as to display the fine contours of their bodies. Nothing is more beautiful than
a perfectly proportioned and developed human body. Physical activity is one of the keys to a beautiful body.
Also, there is a beauty of movement that is developed through physical activity. When a person picks up
an object from the floor, it can be done with great skill and grace, or it can be done crudely and awkwardly.
When a football pass is caught, a basketball goal made, a high jump executed, a two and one-half somersault
dive performed, or a difficult dance displayed, there can be included in the performance of these acts
rhythm, grace, poise, and ease of movement that is beauty in action. Anyone who has seen Jim Ryun run,
Jack Nicklaus drive a golf ball, Rod Laver stroke a tennis ball, Wilt Chamberlain hook a shot through the net,
or Johnny Bench hit a home run knows what beauty of performance means. Such beauty comes only with
practice and per-fection.
9. Physical education should contribute to directing one’s life toward worthwhile goals. The educated person
conscientiously attempts to guide his life in the proper direction. Upon the shoulders of each individual rests
the responsibility of determining how he will live, what religion he will choose, the moral code he will accept,
the standard of values he will follow, and the code of ethics in which he will believe. This is characteristic of
the democratic way of life. In a democracy man can in reality “half control his doom.”
Man must develop his own philosophy of life. The way he treats his fellow men, the manner in which he
assumes responsibility, the objectives he sets to attain on earth, and the type of government in which he
believes will all be affected by this philosophy. Through the philosophy that he has established, man forms
his own destiny.
Physical education can help in the formulation of an individual’s philosophy of life. Through the medium
of physical education activities, guidance can be given as to what is right and proper, goals that are worth
competing for, intrinsic and extrinsic values, autocratic and democratic pro-cedures, and standards of
conduct. Children and youths are great imitators, and the beliefs, actions, and conduct of the coach and the
teacher are many times reflected in the beliefs, actions, and conduct of the student. In education, leadership
is the key that unlocks the door to self-realization for many of our youth.

PHYSICAL EDUCATION AS AN ART

Art can be described as a method of doing something beautifully. People who do things beautifully may be
called artists. Art implies that actions are performed with such principles of taste and imagination, and with such

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aesthetic qualities, that they express beauty, grace and poise. A perfect dive (in aquatics), a perfect gymnastic
exercise, a beautiful painting, a colourful rainbow or a melodious song excites an emotional response in us. This
emotional response is received by us through our various sense organs—ears, eyes, nose etc. Such responses
evoke delight and excite admiration within us because of the humanistic values and aesthetic qualities of the
object or the experience. In music our auditory perception is involved, in seeing a piece of art our visual perception
is involved, in smelling the food our olfactory perception is involved and in athletics our kinaesthetic perception
is involved. It is the quality of the perception that evokes aesthetic response so as to term it as an art.
The person who performs an action beautifully, skillfully and creatively is an artist.The teacher or the guide
who creates such congenial learning environment which encourages and stimulates his disciple to achieve
perfection and beauty in performance is also an artist. An athlete who sails over the high jump bar skillfully,
beautifully with grace and poise is an artist and the teacher, the guide who taught him with his soaring imagination
and stimulating ideas is also an artist.
Art has two main principles, ‘form’ and ‘organisation’ and physical education satisfies both these principles.
Form is essential quality of good activity in physical education. The teacher will be able to evaluate the strong,
supple physical from as well as the skilled activity as to its good form. Physical education also satisfies the second
principle of organisation which is a function of imagination and creativity. Physical education contributes to
creativity and appreciation of the same by providing different modes of expression through movements and
also by allowing for individual differences of the participants at the same time. These two principles are generally
responsible for beautifying the programme of physical education, extrinsically and intrinsically. It can thus, be
said that physical education is an art.
PHYSICAL EDUCATION AS A SCIENCE
Physical education can be termed as a science only if the principles, laws, theories on which it is founded
are determined and verified. What we know about human being is scattered through many separate disciplines.
Physical education draws its principles from various sources like anatomy, physiology, mental hygiene, psychology,
anthropology, bio-chemistry, bio-physics, bio-mechanics etc. which contribute much to the understanding of‘man’
and his ‘movements’. These sciences have paved the way for building up a scientific basis of physical education. The
principles and theories which guide programming in physical education place heavy reliance on these sciences.
Principles of these services are so well established that there is hardly any possibility of any change taking place.
Basic characteristics of science are that it provides us the knowledge, the facts, intellectual tool for solving
problems, enabling us to construct means and also stresses on results and achievements. As physical education
relies heavily on these basic characteristics of science, it can be well said that physical education as a science.
PHYSICAL EDUCATION AS AN ART AND SCIENCE
Since physical education derives its principles both from art and science, it will be appropriate to treat it
as an art and a science at the same time. It is an art because it is aesthetic, imaginative and creative. It is science
as it is systematic and realistic. Physical education being a rare combination of science and art can be termed as
‘artistic science’.

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UNIT – II HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION

PERIOD OF INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION (3250 BC – 2500 BC)

This is also known as pre-vedic age. We do not find any proof or record of any kind of physical art or craft
during this period. But, various things found at Harappan and Mohanjodaro provide some clue or hints of such
kind of art during this period. Various kinds of physical exercises were used to practice by people of this period,
however, for this no special events were organised. Activities of a general manner were organised. One of an
important and most popular event of pre-vedic people was considered to be dancing. Generally people did not
perform dance individually, but event of group dancing was being organised. As in modern period, we organise
different swimming competitions, during the pre-medieval period, such event was organised which was called
the Grcort Bath. Near that place, there situated showers of hot and cold water, which were called the hammam.
For conducting various kinds of sports events, marbles, balls and dicers were used. Various proofs prove
that dicing was the most popular game during that period. From some evidences, it has been proved that dicing
was not a full time game, but it was used only with board games.
Another important pass-time during this period was animal fighting. Boxing is also considered an important
event which was being practised by people of that period.
VEDIC PERIOD (2500 BC – 600 BC)
One of an important asana of Yoga, Suryanamaskara, has its origin in this period. This asana did not have
the same value and importance as it has today, but earlier, it was performed in the form of a religious duty. It was
during this period that another important asana, Pranayama came into existence.
During this period, military training got a very important place. Hand wrestling, perfect use of various
weapons were being practised by people of this period. Swinging was one of a favourite pass-time of people.
People of both the sexes used to indulge themselves in various kinds of ball games. Dicing was also popular in
this period also. For defeating the enemies in the wars, boxing was employed because of which it was practised
by young people to a large extent. People used to participate in various forms of dancing. For pass-time, animal
hunting was used. Various kinds of fights were being conducted between different animals and birds.
It was during this period that healthy physique was provided much importance. In comparison to academic
learning, physical strength and knowledge of physical activities was considered more important. Not only physical
strength was considered important, but spiritual strength was also recognised very important for which practice
of various asanas of yoga were being recommended to people of all age groups and of both sexes.
EARLY HINDU PERIOD (600 BC – 320 AD)
During this period, much importance or value was being provided to various kinds of dramas and festivals.
Physical training was considered an important part of life. Hunting was a sport which was being practised by
people with royal background. Kings and common men used to play dicing and chess.
It is considered that game of chess came into existence during this period and India is the true originator
of this game. For physical strength, wrestling, male fighting and various kinds of other activities were employed
by people at large. One of an important feature of this age was practising of fighting with animals. Great warriors
used to fight not only with human beings but also with powerful animals as they considered it a good means to
increase or develop one’s physical strength.

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LATER HINDU PERIOD (320 AD – 1000 AD)

During this period, much importance was provide to systematic teaching and this thinking inspired
some scholars or experts to establish universities of Taxila and Nalanda. At these centres of training, a kind of
correlation was found between physical, intellectual and aesthetic training of individuals. Special important
was being given to some events like wrestling, archery and mountain climbing.
Importance of physical activities during this period can be measured from the fact that students of the
Nalanda University used to practice certain special physical activities daily. Those activities included swimming
and yoga. During this period, India was ruled over by Gupta rulers and they took various important steps to
improve the condition of physical activities in general public. Common persons were encouraged to participate
in certain sports and in physical activities. Various kinds of arrangements were made to organise such sports.
Hunting was considered an important pass-time during this period and cock fighting was becoming more
popular. Various kinds of animal fighting was popular during that period.
Bodily health was considered an important means for improving spiritual conditions of the people. Much
importance was given to the sound physique and people were encouraged to participate in various kinds of
physical activities for this purpose. Physical activities were practised by people on regular basis and various kinds
of supports or encouragement was provided by monarchs.
MEDIEVAL PERIOD (1000 AD – 1757 AD)
During this period, importance of systematic education was considered and now for this purpose, certain
organisations were being established, which were termed as ‘Gurukulas’. Military training was provided much
importance during this period.
Importance of a systematic training or education was being recognised in this period because of which
people were encouraged to set-up more and more gymnasiums.
There was a kind of Gymnasium Movement in the country which was headed by Shree Samarth Ramadas
Swamee.
Inspite of this movement, there was not much increase in the number of gymnasiums in the country. Still now,
religious places were used as a place to provide physical education. Wrestling and various events of gymnastics
got very importance during this period. Some of the specific sport activities got very popularity during this
period, some of which were horse riding, javelin throwing and wrestling. Malkhamb also enjoyed a special place
and it was because of this importance that two new types of malkhambs were introduced, which were Hanging
Malkhamb and Cane Malkhamb. Horse riding was learnt by not only males b1 also by females. As a recreational
activity, chess was used by a large number of people.
During the whole period, physical education and various physical activities enjoyed an important role. They
were considered not only for the warriors and soldiers, but also for the common men. Mostly those activities
were practised which can provide soldiers with war skills. For the warriors, wrestling was considered an important
recreational event. One of an important aspect of wrestling training was body massage.
Another important activity was boxing. Other activities which were popular during that period were hunting,
swimming and animal fighting. There was a sport which was similar to today’s polo which was being practised
during that period. Another important passtime was pigeon flying and various individual sports competitions
were organised from time to time. Various Kinds of indoor activities were also organised from time to time. A big
source of recreation was gardening.

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BRITISH PERIOD (BEFORE 1947)

A Flash Back to Pre-Independence days: Physical Education has always existed in the Indian society in
one form of the other but had never been considered as a part and parcel of school curriculum. No doubt, the
English are the sports loving people and pioneers in education but while in India, as rulers, they also never paid
any attention to the inclusion of physical education in the school education programme. In 1833, Government
of India (at the centre) shouldered the responsibility of education and in 1870, the subject of education was
made a state subject – only the centre retained the supervisory powers. Surprisingly, physical education was
given no place in the school programme. For the first time it was the Indian Education Commission in 1882 that
recommended “Physical training be promoted in the interest of the youth by the encouragement of native games,
gymnastics, the interest in the school children to take physical activities as something enjoyable. In 1894, the
question of making physical education as a compulsory subject was considered but no definite policy came out
of this. Western games especially cricket, were becoming very popular with the princely states.
Private organizations for physical education like gymnasia, vyayam shalas, Akhadas and Kreera Mandal
contributed appreciably to the spread of traditional interest in developmental and conditioning activities like
dands, baithaks, hogic exercises, various folk dances, wrestling, lathi fight, exercises with light apparatus and
indigenous games like kho-kho, Atyapatya. It is heartening to note that some of the princely states also promoted
some games especially polo, hockey, cricket etc. Princely states like Hyderabad, Jodhpur, Patiala, Cooch Bihar,
Baroda, Jaipur and a few others patronized these Westren games apart from traditional sports like wrestling.
Whatever the programme of physical education existed in pre-independence days, it was carried on by
the ex-service men re-employed by school authorities. They imparted military drill and P.T. exercises to the
children and often prepared the children as scouts for school ceremonies and inspection days. The out-standing
development of scientific physical education in India in pre-independence days goes to the Y.M.C.A. College of
Physical Education, Madras founded in 1920, by Mr. H.C. Buck. Since its inception this college has been working
tirelessly and self-lessly to promote and systematize physical education in India. In 1931, the Government College
of Physical Education Lucknow were established. In 1938, came into existence another “Training Institute of
Physical Education” Kandivali (B0mbay). In 1914, Vaidya Brothers founded Sri Hanuman Vyayam Prasark Mandal,
Amravati, basically to serve the cause of traditional physical education in India. In 1924, this institution started a
five weeks summer course for young men and women in indigenous activities. A youth completing this course
was awarded “Vayayam Visharad”. Here in 1946 at the time of All India Physical Education Conference, National
Association of Physical Education and Recreation of India was formed. The Mandal team gave numerous
demonstrations of activities in Europe and Middle East and in 1936 at Olympic Games at Berlin and in 1949 at
the second Lingaid at Stockholm.

PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN INDIA (AFTER 1947)

THE ALL INDIA COUNCIL OF SPORTS

The All India Council of Sports was formed in the year 1954 by the Ministry of Education, Government of
India It was intended to serve the cause of games and sports in the country and to act as a co-ordinating body
between the National Federations, National Association and Central Government. Originally this body consisted
mainly the Presidents of National sports Federations and special organizations and five Government nominees

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and the total strength was 25. This body was re-constituted in 1969 and the entire body of the council consisted
of members nominated by the Government of India. Then the total strength wasmade as 15. This council was
generally reconstituted for every 3-years.
This council has several functions. They may be enumerated as follows:

i) To advice the Government of India in all matters pertaining to games and sports,
ii) To give advice and assistance to the various National Sports organizations with a view to raise the standard
of games in the country,
iii) To recommend to the Central Government to give financial aid to deserving sports organization,
iv) To act as a Liasion between the National Sports organizations and the Central Government,
v) To recommend financial grants for construction of stadia, purchase of games and sports materials and
conduct coaching camps by the concerned sports bodies,
vi) To effect proper control over the funds or deputation of national teams abroad and to recommend financial
aid for meeting the expenses of foreign teams visiting India,
vii) To recommend to the Government of India the names and outstanding and distinguished sportsmen in the
country for the award of National titles like Arjuna, Padma Shri, Padma Bhushan etc.
It was the All India Council of Sports that recommended the establishment of the National Institute of
Sports at Patiala.
The States of the Indian Union were’asked to form state sports Councils and get themselves affiliated to
the All India Council. Accordingly most of the States have formed their own Sports Councils. Even District Sports
Councils have been formed in many States with a view to popularise games and sports not only in urban areas
but also in rural areas.
Coaching schemes are being organised at different levels viz. District, State and National.
The All India Council of Sports has become obsolate after the founding of the SAI (Sport Authority of India).
NATIONAL DISCIPLINE SCHEME

Late Gen J.K. Bhonsle, while in Japan during the Second World War and during the I.N.A movement in the East,
was impressed by the educational system of Japanese nation which not only was based on sound philosophical
and scientific foundations but also embodied in itself physical and mental training. This, perhaps, resulted into
an enviable pattern of individual and national discipline in Japanese people.
After India became independent and Sh. Bhonsle came to the Centre as a Deputy Minister for Rehabilitation,
he conceived the idea of introducing such type of training for the refugee children who has settled in Delhi and
Punjab. It was in this context that the National Discipline Scheme took birth on July 24, 1954 at Kasturba Niketan,
Lajpat Nagar, New Delhi where hundreds of refugees were temporarily lodged. The scheme came into being
as an experiment with the help of a couple of ex-I.N.A. soldiers and officers who still had the spark of service,
patriotism and respect for national ideals. Gradually the scheme was introduced to other institutions in Punjab,
Gujarat, and Bengal. Numerous rallies and demonstrations that were encomium for Gen.Bhonsle and his selfless
workers and so the scheme spread like a wild fire. In 1957 the Scheme was handed over to the Union Education

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Ministry for furthering the cause of discipline amongst the Indian youth. A directorate was set up for N.D.S and
Gen.Bhonlse was made its Director General.
It was to his initiative that the Central Training Institutes, Sarika (Rajasthan) (1960) and Barwala (1963) were
established to train the N.D.S. instructors to cater to the growing need and demand in the country. The training
courses were extended to the period of nine months. The N.D.S. instructors were paid by N.D.S. Directorate but
worked with school authorities.
Objectives: The aim and objectives of the scheme were:
(i) To make the youth healthy in mind and body and instill in them a sense of patriostism, self-reliance, tolerance
and self-sacrifice.
(ii) To develop human values and to build in them a desire to serve the country and humanity at large.
Programme: The programme of the scheme covered items such as

1. Physical training: Through drill and marching and physical training exercises and tables, gymnastics
and sports.
2. Mental training: Through lectures on discipline, patriotism, good citizenship, National Flag and
National Anthem etc.
3. Administration: Through appointment of leaders in rallies and demonstrations.
4. Organization: Through various opportunities to the students for forging their way forward, at the
organization of sports days, rallies and ceremonial parades.
5.Cultural Programme: By singing emotional and national integration songs of different States
irrespective of one’s caste, creed, language and State boundaries. Folk dances were very significant
part of this programme. All men and women had to learn dances.
What N.D.S. was in 1954, it was not after a decade. It had grown to be a great department. It had, by the
end of 1964 about 7000 N.D.S. instructions, working in the schools throughout the country.
It was not static but a dynamic Institution that borrowed the best features of various Physical Education
programmes and prepared a coherent plan of its own activities. Numerous conferences and seminars were held
to modify its objectives and its organizational set-up. This scheme accepted new programmes and absorbed in
itself such programmes which other schemes professed to have.
Special Features

1. The Scheme ensured mass participation and all teachers of the scheme had to learn all activities to achieve
proficiency in them. The children were also taught all activities without exception.
2. It had intensive nature of training.
3. Supervisory pattern was very effective.
4. It aimed at uniformity throughout the country so that mass rallies could be held without much labour.
5. Refresher and re-orientation courses, held at least every year for all N.D.S. instructions, kept the instructors
fresh and made them aware of the latest developments.

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6. Chances of rapid promotion on the basis of seniority-cum-merit served as incentives for the teachers to put
their heart and soul in their work.
7. Its training centres attracted students from all over India and the people tried to live a life devoid of personal
interest, language barrier, and colour distinction. The training institutes shoed themselves as miniature
India representing greal unity in diversity. They were examples of emotional and national integration.
The N.D.S. movement was a dynamic institution and a revolutionary concept. It at least had made efforts to
give impetus to the cause of physical education by posting N.D.s. instructors in almost all the states who worked
under a uniform pattern and centrally organized administration. This scheme remained a scheme and did not
become a permanent administration and ultimately died its own death after having been amalgamated with the
confluence of N.F.C. National Discipline Scheme revived some of the indigenous activities like lezium malkhamb,
folk dances etc. Still at State or National rallies theses activities are presented by thousands of children with great
gusto and remarkable rhythm. The N.D.S. though a thing of the past, has become a legend in itself.
N.C.C

After the achievement of Independence a committee headed by Shri H.N. Kunzru recommended the
establishment of the National Cadet Corps. The recommendation was implemented in 1948 by an Act of Parliament.
This scheme is under the control of the Ministry of Defense and it is being operated through the Director General
of N.C.C in co-operation with State Governments.
The object of this scheme is to develop character, leadership and a national flavor to defend the country.
The N.C.C. was not compulsory to the students in educational institutions. But due to the emergency declared,
it was made imperative for the students in colleges to join the N.C.C. and stay in it for at least 3 years. Only those
who are medically unfit were exempted. The N.C.C. and gives practice in elementary military training. There is a
junior and senior N.C.C. Rifle training was introduced in the senior N.C.C. from 1960 onwards.
NATIONAL SPORTS ORGANIZATION (NSO)

The National Sports Organization is an effort by the Government of India to promote the development of
athletics and sporting activities with the youth of India. It is present in many important institutions of India such
as the IITS and IIMs, and very talented athletes are selected. The safest weapon sports in the International arena
which develops superb reflex actions & stamina without the fear of getting injured. Pioneer of Spochan in India
is Prof.Dr.Siddiq Mahmoodi from Hyderabad, who is appointed President of Spochan for for India by the Founder
Grandmaster Kaicho Tetsundo Tanabe Sensei of Japan.
The National Sports Organization is a nationwide movement to instill physical awareness amongst the youth.
The NSO Nitt chapter consists of around 1000 students in all the 4 years. The NSO is responsible for organizing
the sports day in the college. It also conducts regular meetings in which the students are encouraged to take up
various sports activities.
NATIONAL SERVICE SCHEME (NSS)
The National Service Scheme (NSS) is an Indian government-sponsored public service program conducted
by the Department of Youth Affairs and Sports of the Government of India. Popularly known as NSS, the scheme
was launched in Gandhiji’s Centenary year, 1969. Aimed at developing student’s personality through community
service, NSS is a voluntary association of young people in Colleges, Universities and at +2 level working for a

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campus-community linkage. The cardinal principle of the NSS programme is that it is organised by the students
themselves, and both students and teachers through their combined participation in community service, get a
sense of involvement in the tasks of nation building.

SCOUTS AND GUIDES

The Scout movement was first started in England. The founder of this movement was Sri Robert Paden Powell,
an army officer. He outlined in 1902 his idea for a scouting programme with a view to provide recreation for post
school youth. In 1908 the Boys’ scouts organization was inaugurated in England by Baden Powell. Similarly he
and his sister helped to organize Girl Guides.

The scout movement spread to several parts of the world and in India it was introduced in 1909 exclusively
for the European and Anglo-Indian boys. Afterwards it was started for the Indian boys also. It was in 1916 that the
Indian Boys Scouts Association was founded by Mrs. Annie Besant. Lord Baden Powell who visited our country in
1921 established the Boys Scout Association. Within a span of two decades, the movement spread by leaps and
bounds and there were three organizations viz. (i) The Hindustan Scout Association (ii) The Boys Scout Association
of India and (iii) The Girls guiding Association of India. In the Post-Independence period these three associations
were amalgamated and formed into a single association in 1950 by the then Education Minister the late Maulana
Abdul Kalam Azad. From that time onwards the Association was named as Bharat Scouts and Guides.

The following are the divisions of the Scouts and Guides:

Scouts: (i) Cubs, (ii) Scouts and (iii) Rovers

Guides: (i) Bul Bul (ii) Guides (iii) Rangers

Scout promise and Law are given stress in this movement. The scout promise consists of Duty to God and
Country, Service to fellowmen and obedience to the Scout Law. The Scout Law emphasizes Trustworthiness,
Loyalty, Helpfulness, Friendliness, Courtesy, Kindness to animals, Obedience, Cheerfulness, Thrift and Purity.

Camping forms an important activity of this movement. Rallies and Jamborees are conducted from time
to time.

SPORTS AUTHORITY OF INDIA (SAI)

The Development of sports talent was a challenge for independent India which was not an easy task. The
Government of India realized the urgency and took the decision to start National Institute of Sports (NTS) in the
year 1961 at Motibagh palace, Patiala. Through this premier center, the sports awareness was spread through
out the country.

In the year 1982, IX Asid was conducted successfully at New Delhi, by constructing sophisticated infrastructure
which went a long way to create sports consciousness amongst the people of the country. As a result the expansion
of sports developmental activities started in a big way which resulted in the birth of Sports Authority of India
(SAI). In order to bring NIS which was under Society for the National Institute of Physical Education and Sports
(SNIPES) to under SAI for effective programmes, the amalgamation took place on May 1st 1987 under the name of
SPORTS AUTHORITY OF INDIA headed by the then Prime Minister of India late Sri.Rajiv Gandhi as its first president.

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Main Objectives:

1. To promote sports in India.

2. To train National teams for participation in international competitions

3. To prepare High Calibre coaches and to enrich their competence and knowledge.
4. To improve scientific back-up to achieve performance in sports.
5. To identify hidden talents and groom them with scientific approach
6. To co-operate with other sports organizations, to provide infrastructure information.
7. To provide organizational support, technical know-how documentation and sports and scientific information
with a view to achieve excellence in sports.
8. SAI conducts full year orientation and refresher courses in various disciplines and sports sciences and
are being conducted for all the coaches from SAI and states on regular basis update their knowledge in
coaching.

9. Certificate course for six weeks in coaching for PE.Teachers is also being conducted during summer vacation.

10. At NIS various departments have been setup for sports sciences. The departments include sports physiology,
Biomechanics, psychology, General theory and methods of Training, Anthropometry and Sports Medicine.

Schemes by SAI
SAI has launched the following schemes to spot and nurture the talents of various age groups through
different agencies and are being trained by SAI coaches. The expenditure on boarding, lodging, education, sports
kit/ uniform, sports equipment, training and competitions are being borne by SAI.
a) National Sports Talent Contest (NSTC)
The scheme was launched in the Year 1985. Few schools have been adopted by extending one time grant
of 5 lakhs per school to develop infrastructure facilities. The talented children of 8-12 years age group are
selected and admitted. The aim of this scheme is to bring sports consciousness and commitment among
young children and parents and to train children and develop them for medal winning prospectives in
future.
b) Sport Hostels.
Sports hostel have been started in conjucture with state government. It is to achieve international standard
by providing constant training to the talented sports persons in the age group of 16 - 20 years.
c) Special Area Games (SAG)
Remote corners of India have talented sports persons but are devoid of sports facilities since independence.
SAI have launched a scheme to tap talents from special area where the talents are available in abundance.
Aims of a this schemes are
i) To tap talents in special area such as traditional sports and individuals having potential for modem
sports,

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ii) To spot talents from population of which physical or genetic constitution have any relevance to some
sports,
iii) To spot talent from areas whose location and environment is conducive to particular sports. *
d) Army Boys Company
This scheme was launched by SAI in collaboration wflh Army headquarters for 9-14 years of boys. Its aim is
to produce disciplined soldiers as well as excellent sports persons.
e) Sports Project Development Area (SPDA)
It is to establish and develop pyramidal sports infrastructure of different level from village to National and
to tap and nurture talents of sub junior/junior and train them scientifically on a long term basis.
f) National Coaching Scheme
Regional coaching centers have been established depending upon the requirements of the states/UTS. SAI
has given number of coaches to the District Coaching Centres. It’s aims are a) to impart coaching to sports
children and to follow up scientific training for the talented children, b) to train the state team prior to the
national competition, c) to develop sports in rural areas by conducting coaching camps/ competition and
providing scholarships.
g) Prize money Scheme for Schools
The incentive scheme for promotion of sports and games in schools through prize money was introduced in
the year 1986. It’s aim is to encourage educational institutions to take interest in promoting sports activities
in their schools. (Eg.) The winning schools of District level prize money competitions (are awarded Rs. 10,000/-
in five disciplines viz. Athletics, Basket ball, Football, Hockey and Volleyball.
h) Sports Equipment for States/UTS
SAI extends the supply of non consumable sports equipments to the extent of Rs. 1.5 lakhs per District.
i) Rural Sports
The scheme was launched to spot talents among the rural youth through their participation in sports,
competitions from block level to National level in all the disciplines. Selected children are awarded handsome
scholarships.
j) Women Sports Festival
Women sports was launched to commemorate the international women’s year in 1975. The concept of
women sports in India was brought to encourage women folks from all walks of life to take part in sports
activities from Block level to National level. This festival is being organized and. participated by women.
NETAJI SUBHAS NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF SPORTS
Netaji Subhas National Institute of Sports is the largest sports institute of Asia and is popularly known as NIS
Patiala. This complex was made by the Maharaja of Patiala. Later this building was dedicated for the promotion
of sports by his offspring. NSNIS is always known as “Mecca” of Indian games. This institute created many highly
talented coaches which showed their efficiency and proficiency in preparing teams for International competitions.

In ancient times this place was the house of Maharaja of Patiala. It is in old Moti Bagh Palace But now days

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this is an Academic Wing of the Sports Authority of India. On 7th May, 1961 it was established by the Government
of India with the prime objective of developing sports and to impart training to the coaches in various sports. On
23rd January, 1973, it was renamed as Netaji Subhas National Institute of Sports (NSNIS).
Following sports facilities are available in NSNIS, Patiala:

1) Gymnasium & Swimming Pool Complex

2) Athletic Track – Synthetic (8 Lanes), Grass (4 Lanes) and Cinder (8 Lanes)
3) Volleyball, Handball & Judo
4) 2 Squash Courts
5) 3 Indoor Halls for Wrestling, weightlifting, Boxing, Basketball, Badminton, Table Tennis
6) Area for Lawn Tennis (4 hard & 1 grass court)
7) Archery Ground
8) 9-Hole Golf Course
9) 2 Football Grounds
10) 4 Volleyball courts
11) Turf Wicket Cricket Ground & 6 Cricket Nets
12) Cycling Velodrome
13) 2 Basketball Cement Courts
14) Hockey Field Astroturf and 3 Grass Fields
15) 2 Handball Grounds
16) 5-Lane Jogging /Cross Country Track
Major achievements of NSNIS
1. Major Dhyan Chand winner of Gold Medal in 1928 Amsterdam Olympics
2. PT Usha winner of Seoul Asiad shoes in 1986 are produced by NSNIS.

SPORTS DEVELOPMENT AUTHORITY OF TAMIL NADU (SDAT)

Tamil Nadu has made fair strides in the field of sports. The Sports Development Authority of Tamil Nadu (SDAT)
is the government body that is vested with the responsibility of developing sports and related infrastructure in
the state. The SDAT owns and operates a number of world class stadiums and organizes various sporting events. It
also accommodates various sporting events, both at domestic and international level, organized by other sports
associations at its venues. The YMCA College of Physical Education at Nandanam in Chennai was established in
1920 and was the first college for physical education in Asia.

Cricket is the most popular sport and Kabaddi is the state game of Tamil Nadu. M. A. Chidambaram
Stadium in Chennai is an international cricketing arena with a capacity of 50,000 and houses the Tamil Nadu
Cricket Association. Popular cricketers from Tamil Nadu who have represented the national team include

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S. Venkataraghavan, Kris Srikkanth, Robin Singh, Lakshmipathy Balaji Subramaniam Badrinath and Dinesh Karthik.
Cricket contests between local clubs and teams is also popular across the state. The MRF Pace Foundation in
Chennai is a much sought after fast bowling academy by pace bowlers all over the world. The traditional sport
of Kabaddi, called Sadu Gudu in Tamil, is another popular sport played extensively in the rural areas. Silambam
is another popular traditional sport played in the rural areas.

The ATP Chennai Open tournament held in Chennai every January is the biggest Tennis event in South Asia.
Tennis players from Tamil Nadu who had made it to the big stage include Ramanathan Krishnan, Ramesh krishnan,
Vijay Amritraj, Mahesh Bhupathi and Prakash Amritraj. Tamil Nadu has a long standing motorsports culture. The
sport was pioneered by Sundaram Karivardhan in his early days. Notable sportspersons from Tamil Nadu in the
field are Narain Karthikeyan, the first Indian to participate in F1 racing, and Karun Chandok. Motor racing events
are held at the Irungattukottai track (near Sriperumbudur), Sholavaram track and Kari Motorspeedway near
Coimbatore.
The Tamil Nadu Hockey Association is the governing body of Hockey in the state. The Mayor Radhakrishnan
Stadium in Chennai hosts international hockey events and is regarded by the International Hockey Federation as
one of the best in the world for its state-of-the-art infrastructure. Chennai hosted the SAF Games in 1995. Anju
Bobby George, bronze medalist from Sydney Olympics, represents Tamil Nadu in the national arena. Shanthi
Soundararajan, silver medalist (later stripped) from Doha Asian Games, also hails from the state. The Jawaharlal
Nehru Stadium in Chennai is a multipurpose stadium hosting Football and Track & Field events. The Indian Triathlon
Federation and the Volleyball Federation of India are headquartered in Chennai. Chennai hosted India’s first ever
International Beach Volleyball Championship in 2008.
Chess and Carrom are popular indoor sports. World Chess champion and Indian Grand Master Viswanathan
Anand and Arjuna Awardee and two-time world carrom champion Maria Irudayam hail from Tamil Nadu. Snooker
was invented by General Sir Frederick Roberts at the Ooty Club in Udhagamandalam. The Velachery Aquatics
Sports Complex in Chennai hosts different kinds of water sports. The SDAT - TNSRA Squash Academy in Chennai,
one of the very few modern squash facilities in South Asia, hosts international squash events. Tamil Nadu has six
18-hole Golf courses, the most popular of which are the Kodaikanal Golf Club, established in 1895, and Gymkhana
Club, Chennai. The Madras Boat Club, set up in 1867, hosts regular rowing races on the Adyar River. The 232 year
old Guindy race course in Chennai is popular horse racing venue. Apart from these, the Multi-Purpose Indoor
Games Complex in Chennai hosts international events for Volleyball, Basketball, Badminton and Table Tennis. In
the recent years, adventure sports have also gained popularity, especially amongst the tourists visiting the state.

SCHOOL GAMES FEDERATION OF INDIA (SGFI)

The National School Games Federation came into being in 1954. The representatives of the Education
Department of various states met in Calcutta in December 1954 for the All India Physical Education Conference.
At the meeting it was acknowledged that games and sports not only built up strong physique but also play a
very prominent role in the promotion of national integration. Healthy competitions in sports and games provided
opportunities for the younger generation to come together, understand one another, and help in building up a
strong nation. The staging of Inter-State National Championships in games and sports annually for high schools
was agreed upon at the meeting. Shri AC. Das of the Cuttack Physical Education College was appointed as General
Secretary of the Federation.
The National School Games Championship was to be organised every year by the National School Games
Federation. The competition was open only to bonafide students of High Schools and higher secondary schools

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who had not completed 19 years of age. He/She must have put in a minimum of 60% attendance in the class
and should not have any arrears of School fees. A competitor who has secured one of the first three places in the
National open Amateur Athletics and swimming championship shall not be permitted to participate.
The objectives of the Federation as laid down in the constitution are:
1. “To encourage, promote and popularise all recognised Olympic athletic events and games as well as
indigenous national games suited to them amongst the school boys and girls of India.
2. To work for the physical welfare of the school boys and girls of India.
3. To hold the National and International sports meets for school boys and girls in such places and at such
times as may be decided upon and to award certificates and prizes for National school games and sports.
4. To control and regulate on an amateur basis all kinds of Olympic games and sports and such other kindred
activities in co-operation with other state school athletic and games Associations throughout the Indian
Union.
5. To secure adequate participation of athletes in Olympic games and such other International contests in the
various |branches of sports and games as may be approved by the -Federation.
6. To promote and assist in the formation of State Associations and to affiliate them.
7. To co-ordinate Inter-State School activities by holding All-India competitions at different centres by rotation,
as for as possible”.
The First National School games Meet was staged at Fcichmathi, Madhya Pradesh with two games (Football
and Kabaddi) and athletics for boys and Volleyball and athletics for girls in May 1955. Only Seven States entered
the Meet. For the Second Meet in Cuttack, Orissa, the number rose to Nine States. The Third, Fourth and Fifth Meets
showed great progress, as more States participated and thereby the number of competitors also increased. The
number of items was also increased. For the Fifth meet in Bombay almost all the States participated and the total
number of competitors was over 1500. At the end of the Fifth meet the Executive Committee of the Federation
decided to hold the meet in subsequent years in two parts viz. The Autumn Meet and the Winter Meet and the
items were also decided accordingly.
The Autumn Meet (October or November)
Boys Girls
Football Kho-Kho
Kabaddi Table Tennis
Table Tennis Swimming
Swirnming
The Winter Meet (December or January)
Boys Girls
Hockey Volleyball
Basketball Basketball
Volleyball Badminton
Badminton Gymnastics
Gymnastics Athletics
Athletics

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In 1960, the Sixth Autumn Meet was held in Indore, Madhya Pradesh and the Winter Meet in
Thiruvananthapuram. Thereafter the National School Games championship has been conducted every year
regularly Shri B.N. Basu, Secretary to the Government and Special Officer, Sports, Government of Bihar is the
President of the National School Games Federation. The Twelfth Autumn Meet was staged in Madras in October
1966 and the Winter Meet inUdaipur in December 1966.
ASSOCIATION OF INDIAN UNIVERSITIES (AIU) Inter-University Sports Board of India
The Inter University Sports Board of India was constituted for the purpose of efficient running of the Inter-
University tournaments and for the promotion of sports and games in the Indian Universities. Two headquarters
of the Inter-University Sports Board be located at the same place where the headquarters of the Inter-University
Board (Vice Chancellors) are situated. The Inter-University Sports Board shall be composed of.
a) One nominee from each of the member universities
b) The president and secretary of the Inter university Board who shall be ex-officio president and secretary
of the Sports Board.
The Sports Committee of the Inter University Board is composed of the Chairman, the Secretary, the Assistant
Secretary (Sports), two members nominated by the chairman for a period of one year (who possess knowledge
of technical matters) and two members connected with Universities. The committee has powers to see whether
the sports activities are organised under the general direction of the Inter University Board and in comformity
with its policies.
Every constituent University of the Inter University Board shall be affiliated to the Inter University Sports
Board and shall pay an annual affiliation fee as may be fixed from time to time. No entry fee shall be charged for
any game on tournament organised by the Inter University Sports Board for the benefit of its constituent member.
The Inter-University Sports Board shall meet at least once a year before the end of May.

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

University sports is an integral phase in the total education of the University students. The Inter University
competitions are merely one of the means, towards developing a more totally educated citizens through sports in
its finest concept. The competitions conducted by University on behalf of this Board are, therefore to be considered
not as ends in themselves but rather as educational projects concerned with assisting in the total education of
the university student. The principal objectives of the Sports Board shall be:

i) to organise the Inter-University tournaments and competitions in recognised games and sports.
ii) to participate in national and international competitions;
iii) to encourage sportsmanship generally and to promote friendly relations among constituent universities.
iv) to raise the standard of Sports and athletics prevailing in the colleges, universities and other member
institutions and to work for the development of character values through sports amongst the university
students.
v) to organise coaching camps in regional and national basis.
Tournaments and Zones
The following tournaments shall ordinarily be organised by the Board.

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Men

Athletics, badminton (shuttle cock & ball), basketball, boxing, chess, cricket, cycling, football, gymnastics,
malkhamb, weight lifting and best physique, hockey, kabaddi, kho kho, rowing, shooting, squash racket, swimming,
diving and water-polo, table tennis, tennis, volleyball and wrestling.

Women

Athletics, badminton (shuttle cock & ball), basketball, Football, hockey, kabaddi, kho kho, swimming, table
tennis, tennis, and volleyball.

Games may be included or deleted by the Sports Board from time to time, at its annual meetings. Tournament,
in various games shall be organised on an All India basis 2-zone and 4- zone basis as decided by the Sports Board
at its annual meetings, from time to time. The Universities are grouped into four zones namely North zone, East
zone, South zone and West zone. When tournaments are conducted in 2-zones, North zone and East zone will
go together and the South zone and West zone will form one zone. The new zones so formed shall be called
North zone and South zone.

Each Constituent University shall enter only one team for each game. The Inter University Sports Board at
its annual meeting shall allocate the responsibility for the conduct of tournaments in the year following. The
Universities who have been allocated the responsibility of organising the Inter Univasity tournaments shall be
called as “Organising Universities”.
INDIAN OLYMPIC ASSOCIATION
Foundation of IOA
Sir Dorabji Tata towards the end of 1919 first sowed the seeds for establishing a Sports body at National
level for promoting the Olympic Sport in united India. Sir Dorabjii Tata with the support of Dr.A.G.Noehren then
Director of YMCA established the Indian Olympic Association (IOA) in 1927. Sir Dorabji Tata and Dr. Noehren have
become the Founder President and Secretary General respectively of IOA.

Though no National Olympic Committee was formed in India, Sir Dorabji Tata fielded a token contingent of
6 members i.e. four athletes and two wrestlers in the Antwerp Olympic Games in 1920. During these Games Sir
Dorabji Tata was elected as a member of the International Olympic Committee (IOC) and thus became the first
IOC member in India. Upon his return to India from Antwerp Olympic Games, Sir Dorabji Tata, in association with
Dr. A. G. Noehren began to search throughout India for talent in athletics. This talent search aroused national
interest in athletics and helped to promote the organisation of athletic meetings in all States and provinces in India.

In February 1924, the first ever Inter-State Athletic meet was organised in Delhi and an eight -member
Athletic team selected during this meet was sent for the Paris Olympic Games in 1924. By 1927, the IOA decided
to hold regular inter-State Games and since then National championships in all Sports are being held in various
states of India.
Sir Dorabji Tata and Dr. Noehren ran the IOA activities until 1928. The mantle was then handed over to
Maharaja Bhupindra Singh of Patiala (1928-1938), and Prof. Guru Dutt Sondhi (1928-1952) respectively. Sir Dorabji
Tata continued as IOC member in India until his death in 1931. In 1932 Prof. Guru Dutt Sondhi, who was also the
Indian representative within the International Amateur Athletic Federation, assumed his responsibilities.

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IOA the apex Sports Organization of Olympic Sport in the country is responsible for the Indian contingent’s
participation in the Olympic Games, Commonwealth Games, Asian Games(Outdoor-Indoor-Beach) and South
Asian Games. Each Olympic and Non-Olympic Sport has a Federation at the National level and are affiliated/
recognized to/ by IOA.

The selection of the National teams is done by the respective National Federations and then recommend
to IOA for official sponsorship for participation in the Games being conducted under the auspices of the IOC,
OCA, CGF and SAG. A special feature of the Indian Olympic Association is that, the National Federations and the
State Olympic Associations are affiliated/recognised to it. The main task of the State Olympic Associations is to
Promote the Olympic Sport and to ensure coordination among the State Sports Associations.

The most important task in addition to sponsoring the National teams for Multi Sport Games is the staging
the National Games.

The role of IOA

India first participated in Olympics in 1900 in Paris. The country was repre sented by Norman Pritchard,
an Anglo Indian who was holidaying in Paris during that time. The Indian Olympic Association is responsible
for the preparation and participation of competitors in the Olympic Games as well as in Regional events like
Commonwealth and Asian Games. There is a separate federation at national level in each game/sport which
assists the Indian Olympic Association and preparation of sportsmen.

The selection of sportsmen is generally carried out on the basis of performance at national level. However,
at times, special selection trials are also held to choose the competitors for participation in the Olympic Games
and other international events. After initial selection, the competitors are required to attend training camps.
The national federations are assisted by the Netaji Subhas National Institute of Sports, Patiala, which provides
intensive training for athletes.

The selected competitors are then recommended by the national federations to the IOA for official
sponsorship for participation in the Olympic Games.

A special feature of the Indian Olympic Association is that, in addition to the national federation for each
sport, there are State Olympic Associations in various States in the country. The State bodies controlling the
different sports are affiliated to the national federations and to the State Olympic Associations. The aim of the
State Olympic Associations is to ensure the promotion of sports in their respective States, in conjunction with
the State bodies for the different games and sports. The overall responsibility for participation in the Olympic
Games rests with the Indian Olympic Association. The other responsibilities undertaken by the IOA are as follows:

1. Deciding the organisation of National Games

2. Maintaining liaison between the Government of India and member federations or associations
3. Protecting the amateur status of sportsmen
4. Promoting and developing the Olympic Movement
The current president of IOA is Mr. Suresh Kalmadi.

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Presidents of IOA

1. Sir Dorabji Tata 1927-1928 6. Raja Bhalendra Singh 1980-1984

2. Maharaja Bhupindra Singh 1928-1938 7. Mr. V C Shukla 1984-1987

3. Maharaja Yadavindra Singh 1938-1960 8. Dr. B. Sivanthi Adityan 1987-1996

4. Raja Bhalindra Singh 1960-1975 9. Suresh Kalmadi (1997-2012)

5. Air Chief Marshal OP Mehra 1976-1980 10. N. Ramachandran (2012 - Till date)

2020 Summer Olympic bid

The Indian Olympic Association stated that “Delhi would bid for the 2020 Olympics.” The IOA had decided
to bid for the 2016 games but after a failed attempt to host the 2014 Asian Games, it will now bid for the 2020
games, officials confirmed.

NATIONAL SPORTS FEDERATIONS

National Sports Federations (some are also called associations) are voluntary organizations having their roots
in the sports clubs at the baseline. The structure of a typical national sport federation begins with the district
sport association having several clubs -affiliated to it. District sport associations make state associations which,
in turn, comprise the National Sport Federation. At each level, these “associations” have their • constitution, rules
and regulations and clearly defined objectives and functions. Each national sport federation guides, directs and
controls the working of its subordinate units on the one hand, and on the other it is guided and directed by its
respective international federation in technical matters of the sport, and matters of management by IOA. Obviously,
each national sport federation has a mandatory link with its international body as well as IOA. Most of the NSFs
and their subordinate units are registered autonomous societies. The IOA also has State Olympic Associations
and district Olympic associations which, in turn, comprise the national sport federation. In structure, there exists
a parallelism in sports associations and Olympic associations. Except for a few professional sport bodies, all NSFs
are affiliated with the IOA.

Within the frame of reference to their respective constitutions and the national policy on sport, the NSFs
are at absolute liberty to mobilize financial resources, formulate developmental and action plans to achieve their
short-term and long term objectives. They are responsible for holding sports competitions regularly and get their
teams trained for participation in state, national and international competitions as the case may be. Of late, the
Government through Sports Authority of India (earlier MS) have extended all possible help to NSFs in terms of
grants, scientific back-up, infrastructure, coaching etc. in their endeavours to achieve excellence in competitive
sports but except for a few streaks of medal-winning performance in certain events, the over-all scenario seems
to be dismal.

For the propagation, regulation and control of various games and sports on a national level, federations or
associations have been formed from time to time. These Federations get themselves affiliated with their respective

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international Federations. National competitions are being held under the auspices and control of the National
Federations. Teams for international competitions are selected by the respective Federations and no one can
compete in an international competition without the approval of the concerned National Federation. National
Federations have their respective constituents in States.

The following are the names of National Federations or Associations with the year of their formation in India.

1. The Indian Hockey Federation 1925

2. Indian Weight lifting Federation 1935
3. All India Football Federation 1937
4. The Swimming Federation of India 1940
5. Amateur Athletic Federation of India 1944
6. Wrestling Federation of India 1948
7. Basketball Federation of India 1950
8. Volleyball Federation of India 1951
9. Gymnastic Federation of India 1951
10. National Rifle Association of India 1951
11. The Indian Amateur Boxing Federation 1958
12. All India Lawn Tennis Association 1920
13. Board of Control for Cricket in India 1926
14. Indian Table Tennis Federation 1926
15. All India Badminton Association 1934
16. National Cyclists Federation of India 1938
17. All India Billiards Association 1940
18. Kabaddi Federation of India 1951
19. Squash Rocket Association of India 1953
20. The School Games Federation of India 1954
21. Yatching Association of India 1960

REPUBLIC DAY SPORTS (RDS)

The Republic Day Sports are being conducted for students (boys and girls) of VI standard to
X standard for Tamilnadu schools. Competitions are being conducted on inter school basis. To start with, the
competitions are conducted on zonal, educational district, revenue district and on divisional basis. The participants
should be below 17 years of age. The classifications are made as follows.
Age in years Category
10 to 12 Sub Juniors
12 to 14 Juniors
14 to 17 Seniors

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The following games and sports will be conducted for competitions. Basketball, Badminton, Ball Badminton,
Football, Hockey, Kabaddi, Kho-Kho, Table Tennis, Volleyball and Athletics.

The Republic Day sports are conducted from the year 1950 for every academic year.

BHARATHIAR DAY SPORTS (BDS)

The Bharathiar Day sports are conducted from the year 1978. It is conducted for the students (boys and
girls) of Higher Secondary schools. The competitions are being conducted on inter school basis. To start with, the
competitions are conducted on zonal, educational district, revenue district, and divisional basis. The participants
should be below 19 years of age.

The following games will be conducted for competitions. Basketball, Badminton, Ball Badminton, Football,
Hockey, Kabaddi, Kho-Kho, Table Tennis and Volleyball. The competitions are conducted on every academic year.

ARJUNA AWARD
The Arjuna Awards were instituted in 1961 by the government of India to recognize outstanding achievement
in National sports. The award carries a cash prize of Rs. 5,00,000, a bronze statuette of Arjuna and a scroll.

Over the years the scope of the award has been expanded and a large number of sportspersons who belonged
to the pre-Arjuna Award era were also included in the list. Further, the number of disciplines for which the award
is given was increased to include indigenous games and the physically handicapped category.

The Government has recently revised the scheme for the Arjuna Award. As per the revised guidelines, to be
eligible for the Award, a sportsperson should not only have good performance consistently for the previous three
years at the international level with excellence for the year for which the Award is recommended, but should also
have shown qualities of leadership, sportsmanship and a sense of discipline.

DRONACHARYA AWARD
Dronacharya Award is an award presented by the government of India for excellence in sports coaching.
The award comprises a bronze statuette of Dronacharya, a scroll of honour and a cash component of Rs.5,00,000.
The award was instituted in 1985. As the best sportsperson award is named Arjuna Award, it is appropriate that
the coaching award is named after Dronacharya, as he was the Guru of Arjuna.

RAJIV GANDHI KHEL RATNA

The Rajiv Gandhi Khel Ratna (RGKR) is India’s highest honour given for achievement in sports. The words
“Khel Ratna” literally translate to “Sports Gem” in Hindi. The award is named after the late Rajiv Gandhi, former
Prime Minister of India. It carries a medal, a scroll of honour and a substantial cash component. As of 2004-05,
when the award was last bestowed, the cash component stands at Rs. 7,50,000/-.

The award was instituted in the year 1991-92 to supply the lack of a supreme national accolade in the field
of sports. Predating the RGKR are the Arjuna awards that have always been given to outstanding sportspersons in
each of many sporting disciplines every year. The Khel Ratna was devised to be an overarching honour, conferred
for outstanding sporting performance, whether by an individual or a team, across all sporting disciplines in a given
year.

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A selection committee consisting of eminent people affiliated to sports is constituted every year by the
Ministry of Youth Affairs & Sports to evaluate sporting performances. Usually, performance between April 1
of one year to March 31 of the next year is considered. To qualify for this award, a sportsperson or team must
take part in discipline that is included in the Olympic Games, the Asian Games or the Commonwealth Games.
Professional sportsmen competing in billiards, snooker and chess are also eligible for this honour. A person can
receive this award only once in his lifetime and must be nominated for the award by a member of parliament, state
governments, the Sports Authority of India or national sports federations. The committee make a recommendation
to the ministry, and after this is vested at various levels in the government, the nominee is invested with the
award by the President of India.Whereas the trend has generally been for one outstanding sportsperson to be
honoured every year, that is not mandatory. The award need not be bestowed if no candidate is found to have
met historic standards of excellence. Two or more individuals or teams may be honored in the same year. On two
occasions, two individual sportspersons shared the accolade.

SPECIAL OLYMPICS
Special Olympics is the world’s largest sports organization for children and adults with intellectual disabilities,
providing year-round training and competitions to more than 4.2 million athletes in 170 countries. Special Olympics
competitions are held every day, all around the world—including local, national and regional competitions,
adding up to more than 70,000 events a year.[2]
These competitions include the Special Olympics World Games, which alternate between summer and winter
games. Special Olympics World Games are held every two years. The Special Olympics World Games are often
the largest sporting event to take place in the world during that year. The most recent World Summer Games
were the Special Olympics World Summer Games, held in Athens, Greece (The birthplace of the modern Olympic
Games), from June 25, 2011 to July 4, 2011.[3]
The most recent Special Olympics World Winter Games were held in Pyeongchang, South Korea from January
29 to February 5, 2013.[4] At the same time, the first Special Olympics Global Development Summit was held
on “Ending the Cycle of Poverty and Exclusion for People with Intellectual Disabilities,” gathering government
officials, activists and business leaders from around the world [5]
The next World Games will be the 2015 Special Olympics World Summer Games in Los Angeles, California
from July 24 to August 2, 2015.[6]Graz and Schladming, Austria will host the next Special Olympics World Winter
Games from March 14-24, 2017.[7]

DEAFLYMPICS
The Deaflympics (previously called World Games for the Deaf, and International Games for the Deaf ) are an
International Olympic Committee (IOC)-sanctioned event at which deaf athletes compete at an elite level. However,
unlike the athletes in other IOC-sanctioned events (i.e., the Olympics, the Paralympics, and the Special Olympics),
the Deaflympians cannot be guided by sounds (i.e., the starter’s guns, bullhorn commands or referee whistles).
[1] The games have been organized by the Comité International des Sports des Sourds (CISS, “The International
Committee of Sports for the Deaf”) since the first event.
The Deaflympics are held every 4 years, and are the longest running multi-sport event excluding the Olympics
themselves.[2] The first games, held in Paris in 1924, were also the first ever international sporting event for athletes
with a disability.[3] The event has been held every four years since, apart from a break for World War II, and an

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additional event, the Deaflympic Winter Games, was added in 1949.[4] The games began as a small gathering of
148 athletes from nine European nations competing in the International Silent Games in Paris, France, in 1924;
now, they have grown into a global movement.[1]
Officially, the games were originally called the “International Games for the Deaf” from 1924 to 1965, but
were sometimes referred to as the “International Silent Games”. From 1966 to 1999 they were called the “World
Games for the Deaf”, and occasionally referred to as the “World Silent Games”. From 2000, the games have been
known by their current name “Deaflympics” (often mistakenly called the “Deaf Olympics”).[4]
To qualify for the games, athletes must have a hearing loss of at least 55 db in their “better ear”. Hearing aids,
cochlear implants and the like are not allowed to be used in competition, to place all athletes on the same level.[4]
Other examples of ways the games vary from hearing competitions are the manner in which they are officiated. To
address the issue of Deaflympians not being able to be guided by sounds, certain sports use alternative methods
of commencing the game. For example, the football referees wave a flag instead of blowing a whistle; on the
track, races are started by using a light, instead of a starter pistol. It is also customary for spectators not to cheer
or clap, but rather to wave – usually with both hands.
AKHADAS AND VYAMASHALA
In the year 1918-19, Hanuman club was renamed as ‘Hanuman Vyayam Mandir’ which than gradually formed
an institute known as Hanuman Vyayam Prasarak Mandal alias as ‘Akhada’ or ‘Vyayam shala’. The seed Ambadaspant
bowed that time has been converted into a Giant tree whose branches are spread not only in Vidarbha but also
in the India. It is said that ‘All glory comes from daring to began’. The glory of Shree H.VP. Mandal is now spread
in the world and is one of the renowned institutes.
YMCA AND ITS CONTRIBUTIONS
In post Independence physical education has developed as an integral curricular of educational institutions
but the progress was not very fast. No doubt much is achieved by this discipline and much is yet to achieve.
Many committees, organizations came into existence to develop this field. But the institutions established
before independent have contributed a lot and still contributing. Much apploudment goes to Mr. H.C. Buck who
founded Y.M.C.A. College of Physical Education MADRAS in 1920 .In 1928 Hanuman Vyayam Prasarak Mandal,
Amravati was founded, in 1931 Govt. College of physical Education Hyderabad, Christen College of physical
Education Lucknow in 1932 were established.
It was with the origin of Y.M.C.A. in India that organised physical education came into existence. This
was a turning point in the area of physical education in our country, which happened in the year 1920. Now
professionally qualified teachers were appointed to train the students. Various games which have an American
origin were being organised in India also. Various other institutions came into existence which used to provide
knowledge relating to various physical activities. By getting education from these institutions, one could get
the certificate and even degree. Various sports were properly organised by this institution which was done by
making its rules. Now, various physical activities were organised in a well co-ordinated manner by following
the proper rules set up by Y.M.C.A.

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UNIT – 3 FOUNDATION OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION

WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY?
Philosophy is a field of inquiry that attempts to help man evaluate, in a satisfying and meaningful manner, his
relationships to the universe. Philosophy seeks to help man evaluate himself and his world by giving him a basis
with which to deal with the problems of life and death, good and evil, freedom and restraint, beauty and ugliness.
Aristotle said that philosophy is the grouping of the knowledge of the universals. A dictionary definition
reports that it is the love of wisdom, the science that investigates the facts and principles of reality and of human
nature and conduct. Copleston writes: “Philosophy ... is rooted in the desire to understand the world, in the desire
to find an intelligible pattern in events and to answer problems which occur to the mind in connection with the
world.” In defining the word philosophy Websterf says: “Love of wisdom means the desire to search for the real
facts and values in life and in the universe, and to evaluate and interpret these with an unbiased and unprejudiced
mind.” As can be seen from these definitions, philosophy offers an explanation of life and the principles that guide
human lives.
In order to comprehend more clearly the meaning of philosophy, one should briefly examine the major
components of which philosophy is composed.
PHILOSOPHY AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION

In today’s changing society, there must be a sound philosophy of physical education in order for our
profession to survive in the present educational system. We must ask ourselves such important questions as:
What has value in today’s society? and What is relevant to the needs of today’s students? We must discover the
answer to these questions and a philosophy will be the means to that end. A philosophy of physical education
will serve the following functions.

A PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION GUIDES ONE’S ACTIONS. In order for man to function as an
intelligent being, he needs a philosophy of life that will guide his actions. One needs knowledge about what
is right before he can create any program. A philosophy will help the teacher to decide what he wants to have
happen to his students in the gymnasium.
A PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION PROVIDES THE DIRECTION FOR THE PROFESSION. Today in physical
education we find that many of our curriculums lack order and direction. A philosophy of physical education
will help to give direction to our programs. When assumptions are made by the physical education teacher, for
example, that physical education strengthens human relationships because children play together, they should
be based on a system of reflective educational thinking that embraces logic and other philosophical components.
A philosophy of physical education will help to provide this system.
A PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION MAKES SOCIETY AWARE THAT PHYSICAL EDUCATION CONTRIBUTES
TO ITS VALUES. Physical education in the coming decades is going to have to face the fact that people are not going
to be satisfied with only such statements as: “Students who participate in physical education show improvement
in endurance.” This is important, but it doesn’t go far enough. In today’s changing society people want to know
how physical education can contribute to the solution of such problems as student unrest and how physical
education programs can help stem the tide of racial discrimination. A well-thought-through philosophy of physical

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education will assist in interpreting those values important in society so that programs can be established to help
solve the problems plaguing this nation.
A PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AIDS IN BRINGING THE MEMBERS OF THE PROFESSION CLOSER
TOGETHER. Many members of the physical education profession are dissatisfied with what they see happening in
their field today. A philosophy of physical education will enable the physical educator I to better determine how
he can best contribute to mankind and to society and thus provide members of the profession the opportunity
to work together in making such a contribution.
A PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION EXPLAINS THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND
GENERAL EDUCATION. A philosophy of physical education will help in the development of a rationale showing
that our field has objectives that are closely related to the objectives of general education. In our definition of
physical education, we stress the importance of education “of and through the physical.” Our goal, as in general
education, is to develop the 0whole” student. A philosophy of physical education that enunciates our basic goals
will give evidence that we have objectives that are related to the objectives of general education.
Physical educators must strive to develop their educational philosophies in a rational, logical, and systematic
manner and to represent the best interests of all men. This means that scientific facts must be assembled and
workable theories applied that support the worth of physical education as an important and necessary service
to humanity.
SOME GENERAL PHILOSOPHIES
Five philosophies have prevailed down through the years and have influenced educational thinking. They are
idealism, realism, pragmatism, naturalism and existentialism.
IDEALISM
The philosophy of idealism has come down to us through the ages as a heritage from the earliest Greek
philosophers and thinkers. The key concepts of idealism follow.
1. A man’s mind is the focus of his being. The idealist believes that the mind of man is more real than anything
else that exists. Anything that is real is essentially a product of the mind and is equated by thoughts and
ideas.
2. In the scheme of the universe, man is more important than nature. Because to the idealist the mind and
spirit are the keys to life, the physical world plays a subordinate role to man. Man interprets nature in terms
of his mind, his spirit, and his being.
3. Values exist independently of man and are permanent. Man is capable of exercising free will. Through the
use of this power, man recognizes the existence in the world of good and evil, beauty and ugliness, freedom
and restraint and interprets them in relation to himself. The idealist acknowledges that man may interpret
values, but he says that these values are permanent and do not change in the light of varying interpretations.
4. Reasoning and intuition help man to arrive at the truth. Man’s mind is considered to be the basic, creative
force that helps him learn more about his world. But the idealist also believes that scientific methods of
investigation and research are valuable aids in seeking the truth.
The Greek philosopher Plato is often referred to as the father of idealism. He believed that ideas had an
enduring quality and that physical objects were ideas expressed in a Icss-than-perfect fashion. Plato said that
there were, in fact, two classes of ideas: those that exist in the mind of men, and those that exist outside of man’s
mind. Aristotle expanded on Plato’s philosophy and was responsible for the earliest origins of the scientific

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method. Aristotle stressed arriving at the truth through reasoning and observation. Rene Descartes is one of
the most famous of the idealist philosophers. His often cited quotation: “I think, therefore I am” is the essential
element in the philosophy of the idealist. Both Baruch Spinoza and Gottfried W. Leibniz expressed the view that
something enduring and unchanging exists beyond man’s universe. While Spinoza referred to this phenomenon
as a “substance,” Leibniz termed it a “God.” George Berkeley, Immanuel Kant, and George Hegel all espoused the
belief that the mind of man is the key to all things. Some of the more modern idealists, whose views encompassed
many of the same elements as the men who preceded them, were Louis Agassiz, Henry Barnard, Carl Follen,
Francis Lieber, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, and Horace Mann.

IDEALISM AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION

1. Physical education involves more than the “physical.” Idealists believe that the body should be developed
simultaneously with the mind. Physical education should contribute to the development of the individual’s
intellect. For example, the physical education teacher, after describing a difficult skill such as the “kip” on the
low bar, can ask students questions such as: “What angle should the hands be in when they are grasping the
bar?” According to idealists, physical education activities can and must help students think for themselves.
2. Strength and fitness activities contribute to the development of one’s personality. The idealistic physical
educator must make sure that the activities that he selects are related to important aspects of life. The
idealist will accept vigorous exercise activities that emphasize development of strength and fitness because
of the self-discipline and effort required. The idealistic physical educator will select such activities because
they contribute to the development of one’s personality; however, he will not select them if their sole aim
is developing strength or fitness.
3. Physical education is centered around ideals. Idealists believe that activities must be offered that aid the
student in developing the qualities of honesty, courage, creativity, and sportsmanship. The idealistic physical
educator aims for perfection. He envisions the students becoming aware of what is true and genuine. He
wants his students to develop strong moral character. The idealist will encourage student-created gymnastic
routines because of the emphasis on creativity. The idealist will want “team sports” dominated by students.
He will reject a basketball game dominated by the coach because the students will not get the opportunity
to think for themselves. Idealistic physical educators stress the fact that students can only develop when
they are playing an important part in the activity.
4. The teacher must be a model for his students. The idealistic physical education teacher must set a good
example for his students. He will be the type of person whom students want to imitate. Through his personal
example of vigorous health and personality, the idealistic physical educator will lead his students toward
greater accomplishments.
5. The teacher is responsible for the effectiveness of the program. Idealism believes that the firm and rather
paternalistic guidance of the teacher is more important in carrying out the program than are equipment
and facilities available. The idealistic physical educator, believing he is responsible for the effectiveness of
the program, does not confine himself to one way of teaching, The idealistic physical education teacher
uses the question and answer, the lecture, the project, and other methods of teaching.
6. Education is for life. The idealistic physical education teacher believes that equally important to developing
physical skills or having knowledge of a sport is thinking reflectively. The idealistic physical educator believes
that the ability to analyze problems is as important as knowing the rules of a game. Idealism emphasizes a

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well-organized, well-guided program that contributes to the full mental and physical development of the
individual.
REALISM
Realism asserted itself as a distinct and separate philosophy during the late nine-teenth and early twentieth
centuries. For many centuries preceding that time, realism was greatly overshadowed by idealism. The roots of
realism date back as far as the origins of idealism, and it was, in fact, a philosophical revolt against idealism. The
growth of scientific methods and the philosophy of modern realism emerged at about the same time. Realism
has many subdivisions. Its adherents do not always agree on particular interpretations, but the key concepts of
realism may be defined in general terms.
1. The physical world is a real world. The realist accepts the physical world, or world of nature, as it is. He
does not contend that the world is man made but says that it is made up of matter. The physical world is
in no way dependent on man’s mind. The realist says that man comes to an understanding of his physical
world through his senses and through experience.
2. All of the physical events that occur in the universe are the result of the laws of nature. The realist contends
that forces within the universe, which are physical laws, control man’s physical world. This belief has given
rise to the physical sciences. The realist says that man’s environment is a result of cause and effect and that
good, morality, and beauty conform to the laws of nature. Those things that do not conform to the laws
of nature are wrong, im moral, and ugly. Man perceives the physical world through observation.
3. The truth may be best determined through the scientific method. The realist does not hope for or anticipate
full control or complete comprehension of everything in the physical world. He does expect to modify and
understand it as well as he can through the tools of science. The realist feels that science and philosophy
form the best method of arriving at the truth.
4. The mind and the body have a close and harmonious relationship. The realists have two views on the
origin of human behavior. One school of thought says that that man’s behavior may be a result of natural
laws. A second opinion is that all of man’s behavior may be a result of learning. Both sides agree, however,
that the mind and the body are inseparable and that neither takes precedence over the other.
5. Religion and philosophy can coexist. The realist can hold religious beliefs with out compromising either
religion or his philosophy. He may be a staunch atheist or a pantheist or hold beliefs anywhere between
the two extremes. The philosophy of realism does not insist on any one position as being the correct one.
The individual realist is free to coordinate his religious beliefs with his philosophical viewpoint.

Philosophers often lend their thinking to the shaping of more than one philosophy. Thus many of the men
who helped to define idealism also adhered to elements of realistic thinking. The early realists were men who
ascribed much to a belief in the powers of a supreme being, or God. Aristotle said that truth and reality were one
and the same and that man’s powers of reasoning made him unique. Because of this viewpoint, Aristotle is often
referred to as the father of realism. St. Thomas Aquinas and Rene Descartes both said that matter was real and
created by a God. Descartes’ writing is believed to be the basis for the field of mathematical physics. Comenius,
Spinoza, Kant, John Locke, and William James all helped to put forth clarifications of this philosophy.

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REALISM AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION

1. Education is for life. The realist views physical education as a valuable part of the school curriculum. It is
considered to be a unit of study that helps prepare the student to adjust to the world in which he lives/
Participation in physical activities is viewed as a means of learning to adjust, and the emphasis is placed on
the outcome of the activity in terms of adjustment. For example, the emphasis in teaching basketball is to
develop such qualities as fair play and sportsmanship as well as in teaching a student how to shoot a basket.

2. Physical fitness results in greater productivity. The realist physical educator emphasizes the values related to
man’s body. He places emphasis upon “physical fitness” because of its intrinsic value. The realist physical
educator stresses the point that one who possesses a physically fit body is one who may be most productive
in society.

3. Programs are based on scientific knowledge. The realist physical education teacher accomplishes his objectives
through use of a scientifically formulated curriculum He selects activities on the basis of scientific evidence
of their worth from a study of anatomy, physiology, or kinesiology. For example, in training a young man to
be a “lineman” in football, it is necessary to be aware of the proper form, which provides optimum stability.
Anatomical knowledge dealing with the question of “base of support” will yield this information. A physical
educator cannot be an effective teacher unless he possesses knowledge of scientific movement principles.

4. Drills play an important part in the learning process. The realist physical educator uses drills extensively and
breaks units of work down into orderly progressions. The teaching emphasis is placed on fundamentals of
games and activities, with each skill broken down into its component parts. In this manner the realist hopes
to develop habits in student responses. The realist believes that breaking down the elements of a sport like
soccer into all its component parts will lead to correct responses in game situations.

5. Interscholastic athletic programs lead to desirable social behaviors. The realist approves of interscholastic
athletic programs insofar as they teach desirable social behavior. The realist approves of a team sport
like baseball particularly as it develops such qualities as sportsmanship, fair play, and tolerance. The realist
physical educator will not be interested in having a baseball program that only emphasizes “winning.”

6. Play and recreation aid in life adjustment. The physical educator who is a realist believes that students who
participate in play and recreational activities are better able to function in society. Through such activities
students are brought into contact with aspects of the “real world” of which they will become a part when
they leave the school setting.
Pragmatism

Pragmatism emphasizes experience as a key to life. Rather than being concerned with reality, this philosophy
is concerned with knowledge. Because of this view, pragmatism was, in its early stages, often called
experimentalism. The term pragmatism was not coined until the late 1800’s. In its modern concept, this
philosophy is considered to be an American one.
1. The experience of man causes changes in the concept of reality. The pragmatist believes in change. He does
not hold that ideas, values, or realities are inflexible. He contends, instead, that the experiences of man

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cause ideas, values, and realities to be dynamic. The pragmatist says that experience is the only possible
way to seek the truth and that that which is not experienced cannot be known or proved.
2. Success is the only criterion of the value and truth of a theory. Knowledge and experience help man to
discover what is true. But truth is considered to be flexible, and today’s truth may be tomorrow’s falsehood.
The pragmatist strongly believes in the scientific method of problem solving. He considers it the best
way to gain knowledge. Knowledge itself is thought to be only a steppingstone on the path to further
knowledge and experimentation. The pragmatist believes that a workable theory is a true theory and that
the unworkable theory has been proved false.
3. Man is an integral part of a larger society, and his actions reflect on that society. The pragmatist contends that
man and society must live harmoniously and that the actions of one directly affect the other. He believes in
democracy, that is, the needs of a group must always incorporate the needs of each individual in the group.
To the pragmatist, values are an individual matter. What is right or wrong depends on the judgment of the
individual, his environment, and the circumstances. However, the result of any action by an individual is
to be measured in terms of its worth to society as a whole.
Heraclitus was an early Greek exponent of pragmatism. He stated the belief, still held today, that the world
and its values and ideas arc in a constant state of flux. Quintilian said that learning was a product of experience.
Francis Bacon, an Englishman, put forth the theory that society and science must work together in order to achieve
knowledge and that one cannot function effectively without the other. The first outstanding American pragmatist
was Chftrlftl S. Pierce, He wrote that the practicality of a truth was the only criterion on which that truth could
be measured. William James said that a theory was good if it worked and wrong if it was not practical. The most
famous of the American pragmatists was John Dewey. At times, pragmatism is referred to as “Deweyism” because
of the influence of Dcwey’s thinking on the philosophy. Dewey brought forth the theory that everything we know
is subject to change and can in no way be considered static. Dewey viewed life as a continuing, never-ending
experiment. He felt that learning how to think was one of the most important goals in life. Dewey’s philosophy
had a most profound influence on the field of education.

PRAGMATISM AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION

1. More meaningful experiences are presented when there is a variety of activity. The pragmatic physical educator
likes a varied program of physical education. He provides students with intriguing problems to solve and
challenges to face in preparation for effective functioning in society. Creative activities such as dance
and experiences in boating, camping, and outdoor living, as well as all types of sports, are highly valued.
Through these activities the student not only learns by doing but also gains a measure of self-control and
discipline and learns to cooperate with others.
2. Activities are socializing in nature. The pragmatic approach to physical education is one of integrating the
child and society. Any activity that has social value is acceptable. Team sports and group recreational
activities are found to be satisfying to the pragmatist. Calisthcnic drills and exercises are largely discarded
from the pragmatic physical education program. The pragmatist sees education as life. Sports, by providing
emotional involvement, competition, and interaction, contribute to the socialization of the individual.
3. The curriculum is determined by the needs and interests of the learner. Learning is accomplished in the pragmatic
curriculum by experiencing those things that have proved to be beneficial to the learner and that result
from the learner’s own interests. Activities that are challenging and creative are the major ones selected

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by the students. Thus such activities as team sports, dance, and recreational activities are included in the
pragmatist curriculum because they satisfy the needs and interests of the students.
4. Learning is accomplished through the problem-solving method. The pragmatic physical education teacher
believes that problem solving helps to make learning more purposeful. The ability of students to recognize
and solve problems encourages thinking. Dance activities prove to be very satisfying to the pragmatic
physical educator because of the elements of creativity involved. Movement education, which emphasizes
the problem-solving method, also is extremely valuable to the pragmatist because of the emphasis on self-
discovery.
5. The teacher is a motivator. The pragmatic physical educator is a leader and motivator of his students. He
encourages students to participate in activities that he feels are most beneficial to them. The pragmatic
teacher guides his students in making the correct choices but does not direct them or tell them that
they must do things his way. The pragmatic teacher employs the use of student leaders and tries to give as
many students as possible a leadership experience.
6. Standardization is not a part of the program. The pragmatic physical education teacher dislikes standardization
because he feels that such a practice makes all programs alike. Pragmatists place a higher value on evaluation
than measurement. They are not as interested in measuring muscle strength as in determining whether or
not students will be able to face the challenges that life will present to them. To the pragmatist, evaluating
whether a student who participates in a baseball game learns the elements of fair play is equally us important
as learning to hit a ball.
NATURALISM
Naturalism, pragmatism, and realism share many key concepts, although naturalism as a philosophy is the
oldest one known to the Western world. Naturalism is often referred to as a materialistic philosophy, since it says
that those things that actually and physically exist are the only things that have value. ,
1. Any reality that exists exists only within the physical realm of nature. To the naturalist, the physical world is
the key to life. It contains all we see, observe, and think about, including the beauty or ugliness of a tree
and the complexities of nuclear physics. The physical world is viewed as being in a constant state of growth
and change, but it is considered to be a predictable and reliable force. Since the physical world is the key
to life, the naturalist does not accept the existence of a God or any other supreme being. The philosophy of
naturalism says that scientific methods are the best ways to gain knowledge about the world of nature.

2. Nature is the source of value. Because nature is omnipotent, anything that is of value exists only within nature
and is predicated by nature. No values can exist separately from nature in any form. Like pragmatism, a thing
is of value if it is workable.

3. The individual is more important thansociety. Naturalism does agree, however, that democracy comes from
a group process, but it contends that each individual is more important than the group as a whole, society
reaps the benefits of the Interaction of man and nature. Conversely, it is the individual who advances nature.

The men who first defined the philos-ophy of naturalism were in strong agreement that all things are
derived from na-ture, including learning. This view was especially put forth by Democritus, Leucippus,
Epicurus, and Comenius. In the eighteenth century, Rousseau, Basedow, and Pestalozzi set the foundations

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for the naturalistic process in education. Rousseau is more of a prime source for these educational objectives,
but Basedow put them into actual use. Herbert Spencer further defined education under naturalism and is
mainly responsible for modern educational thought among the naturalists.

NATURALISM AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION

1. Physical activities are more than just “physical” in nature. Naturalists agree that physical activities do more than
just develop strength and fitness: The naturalist be lieves that activity is the main source of development of
the individual. Through physical activity, the naturalist believes the child learns to become a contributing
member of a group, develops high moral standards, learns to express himself in an acceptable manner, and
becomes an individual who has more nearly reached his full potential.

2. Learning is accofnplished through self-activity. Naturalists state that activity is the main source of the
development of certain capabilities that have been imbedded in the individual by heredity. The need for
security and recognition are such capabilities that are developed through self-activity. The naturalist offers
a wide variety of activities to the child so that he will be able to adjust to his environment. The naturalist
approves of all physical activity including team and individual sports and outdoor education. He introduces
new activities only when students are ready for them and have a need for and interest in them. Naturalists
stress the point that students can only learn when they are “ready” physiologically, psychologically, and
sociologically.

3. Play is an important part of the educational process. Naturalist physical educators believe that play, resulting
directly from the interests of the child, provides the starting point for teaching desirable social behaviors.
Through play the child becomes aware of the world of which he is a part, permitting the teacher to introduce
to him many of the essential features of social relationships. In the naturalist physical educator’s program,
students interact with one another in playful activities and develop social habits that will prove beneficial
to them when they leave the school environment.
4. Highly competitive performance between individuals is discouraged. Self-improvement is encouraged in the
naturalist physical education program, and evaluation goes on continuously/ The emphasis in evaluation
is placed upon the individual’s own performance. The naturalist does not approve of intense competition
between groups. The child must be in competition against himself to better his performance and to improve
in light of what he himself has done in past performances.
5. Physical education is concerned with the “whole man” According to naturalist physical educators, physical
education has a mental aspects.” In every physical activity one’s volitional processes are at work. In a complex
sport such as football, to be successful one constantly thinks and develops the correct responses. However,
naturalists do not believe in making a student mentally fit and disregarding his physical fitness. Education
is for the body as well as the mind. Physical education activities result in physical and mental development
that prepares students to function well in society.
EXISTENTIALISM

The chief concern of existentialism is the individuality of man. The existentialist fears that man is being
forced to conform to society and is thus forfeiting his individuality. Existentialism, which received its impetus
immediately after World War II, is entirely a modern philosophy in that it did not arise from any of the ancient

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philosophies. Existentialism as a way of philosophical thought had its earliest beginnings in the mid-nineteenth
century.
1. Man’s existence is the only true reality. A man is what he causes himself to become, and no more and no
less. He has the ultimate responsibility for his past, present, and future. He has the choice of accepting those
things that exist outside his own experience, but if he does accept them, he forfeits a part of himself. The
existentialist does not contend that God does or does not exist, but only that each man must decide the
answer to this question himself in the light of an objective analysis of his own being.
2. Each man must determine his own system of values. Any value that a man has not fully decided upon
for himself cannot be a real value for him. Any value that is dictated is a meaningless value. To accept a value
that is not self-determined leads away from individuality. A man can respect himself only if his ideals and
values are of his own choosing and, once decided upon, he is willing to accept the responsibility for them.

3. The individual is more important than society. The existentialist believes that society as a whole is indifferent
to the individuals who compose it, The individual can make his mark and keep contact with reality only if he
continually searches for his own place as an individual. Once a man subjugates his values, personality,
and ideals to those of society, he ceases to function as a man.

Soren Kierkegaard, a nineteenth century theologian and philosopher, is considered to be the father of
existentialist thought. He was concerned with seeking the meaning of each man’s individuality. Most of the
modern existentialist philosophers do not necessarily follow the guides set down by Kierkegaard, although they
all place the major emphasis on the individual and his behavior. Jean-Paul Sartre is the outstanding atheistic
existentialist. He denies that man will make any progress, and he sees the ultimate failure of both man and society.
Karl Jaspers, Paul Tillich, and Reinhold Niebuhr are theistic existentialists and offer viewpoints that arc far more
optimistic than Sartre’s. They say that man, to reach the ultimate reality, must participate in life rather than be a
mere spectator. Martin Heidegger has remained fairly clear of the atheist-theist controversy and instead writes
that man cannot stop searching for the meaning in life, no matter what he may find that meaning to be.

EXISTENTIALISM AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION

1. There is freedom of choke. Physical education programs should provide some freedom of choice on the part
of the student. This, however, presents some difficulties when exposed to the problem of implementation.
For example, if the teacher practices complete freedom in determining the program, how can the student
exercise the freedom of choice that is so vital to existentialism? And if the student is totally free to choose
his own activities, does he have the ability to do so? Given absolute freedom of choice and decision making,
it is conceivable that among a class of thirty students up to thirty different activities are selected for pursuit
during a single class period. However, when a wide variety of individual and dual activities is offered, the
existentialist aim can be carried out at least in part.
2. There should be a variety of activity. The existentialist physical educator provides a balanced and varied
program that satisfies individual needs and interests. Within the activity selected, the student is expected
to evaluate himself and, on this judgment, make a selection of the skills and activities he will pursue. It is
the role of the teacher to provide the activities and to create an atmosphere in which the student learns to
take the responsibility for himself, but only after he shows that he has the maturity to earn this privilege.

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3. Play results in the development of creativity. Existentialist physical educators emphasize that when an individual
is playing, he is involved in creativity. Existentialists emphasize individual and team sports; however, team
sports whose only goal is winning are viewed as having little value. Dance and gymnastics fit into the
existentialist curriculum because of the element of creativity involved.
4. Students “know themselves.” The existentialist physical educator’s student has a knowledge of himself, since
it is necessary to have such an understanding in order to make choices that better himself and the rest
of society. Through participation in individual and dual activities, the student gains knowledge about
himself. Competition is acceptable; however, it is the effect of competition on the individual that is important.
Existentialist physical educators also place emphasis on activities such as self-testing activities because
they aid in the development of the individual’s self-responsibility and require the student to “know himself.”
5. The teacher is a counselor. The existentialist physical educator is personally concerned about his students.
Students are made to feel more responsible in the existentialist physical education program than in other
programs discussed. The teacher believes that it is most important to give students the opportunity to try
out their judgments in activities presented to them. In such a manner, the existentialist physical educator’s
students develop the quality of self-responsibility. In the learning process the teacher acts in the role of a
counselor and guide, explaining the various alternatives and giving direction so that the student does not
flounder.

MEANING AND IMPORTANCE OF PHYSICAL FITNESS AND WELLNESS

Meaning of Physical Fitness
The Physical fitness is considered as the ability of an individual to perform a specific physical task at a high
level of effort. It not only covers the physical aspect but also has many other aspects on which the physical fitness
varies. The statement issued by the American Medical Association clearly defines physical fitness as “fitness for
living rests first of all upon a solid foundation of basis of basic good health fitness for living implies freedom from
disease; enough strength, agility, endurance and skill to meet the demands of daily living; reserves sufficient to
withstand ordinary stresses without strain; and mental and emotional adjustment appropriate to the nature of
the individual. Physical fitness is but one element of total fitness.”
Physical fitness is a combination of qualities that enable a person to perform well in vigorous physical
activities. In other words, physical fitness refers to maximal functional capacity of all systems of the body. Every
time when we move, we are exercising and keeping our body tuned and in good running order. The human body
is framed in such a way that it can bend, stretch, run, jump, climb and do more tedious work. The body becomes
stronger when it exerts more. The muscles’ involvement matters a lot in shaping a body. When we do any work
or exercise, it helps in improving our health and builds up our energy and stamina level.
The first and primary objective of physical education is to develop a good physique. Through physical training,
the efficiency of organic systems like respiratory system, circulatory’ system, digestive system, endocrine system,
muscular system and neuro-muscular system improve. These organic developments lead to the development
of physical fitness components. The physical fitness includes strength, speed, flexibility, agility and endurance.
Physical fitness enables a person to perform vigorous activities. Generally, physical fitness and good health are
considered the same, but it is wrong. A seemingly healthy person may be physically unfit because he may be
lacking in any of the component of physical fitness. Regular vigorous exercise also increases the efficiency and
capacity of an individual to lead a fruitful life. Therefore vigorous physical activities should be done for the physical
growth and development.

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According to David R. Lamb, “Physical fitness is defined herein as the capacity to meet the present and
potential physical challenges of life with success”.
The fitness of an individual depends upon frequency of exercise he does. Physical fitness is the capacity to
work without getting fatigued.
MEANING OF WELLNESS
Fitness is described as a state of optimum healthful living. Earlier, health was considered as a state of a
person who is away from all diseases. Right then being unhealthy was related with sickness only. But in a broader
view, a physically fit person is considered as healthy who is balanced in all aspects of life including social,
emotional, physical and mental aspect. Those individuals who adopt a healthy lifestyle may experience an optimal
state of well-being while those who choose to practise an unhealthy lifestyle may be at an increased risk of being
exposed to diseases. Wellness gives stress on each individual for making decisions that will lead not only to
the prevention of diseases but to attain high level of health.
An individual’s well-being caters to all aspects of his life which may range from physical,
emotional, social to economic and even spiritual ones. In wellness, all factors that may affect an
individual’s health are taken into account by a holistic practitioner. These include heredity, nutrition,
physical ac tivit y, stress, family relationship, medical care, spir itual health,
living and working conditions. Holistic health is closely related to wellness. Wellness is based on the notion
that an individual’s health is affected by virtually all aspects of his life. Also physical, psychological, emotional,
environmental, genetic and social factors interact to influence an individual’s state of health. Thus all factors
affect the wellness of an individual.
IMPORTANCE OF PHYSICAL FITNESS AND WELLNESS
Development of the body takes place through games and sports. A physically fit person can help others
whenever his help is required. The various components of physical fitness are speed, strength, endurance, flexibility
and agility. Physical fitness enables a person to perform vigorous activities.
(A) Quality of life
Physical fitness and wellness plays an important role in improving the quality of one’s life. Many experiments
have shown that regular exercises and fitness improve the quality of life. In our daily life, a physically fit person
can manage the routine work efficiently and without getting fatigued, lie may overcome the difficult situations
coming in his way. The totally fit person possesses not only physical well-being but also qualities such as good
human relations, maturity and high ethical standards. That person satisfies such basic needs as love, affection
security and self-respect.
(B) Prevention of diseases
The regular fitness work can prevent many diseases, especially those related to the heart. A physically fit
person is less prone to coronary heart diseases because of low level of cholesterol in the body.
(C) Harmonious growth and development
Harmonious growth and development is the most important objective of physical education. All living
things grow. A tiny seed can grow into a huge tree. Adult elephants are 60 times heavier than baby elephants.
Every living organism consists of cells. The cells can multiply and divide to form other cells. Physical education
also has relation with growth and development. Exercise may promote muscle strength. The regular physical
training can improve the efficiency of various organs.

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COMPONENTS OF PHYSICAL FITNESS AND WELLNESS

Physical fitness has five components which are essential in the field of physical education. The exercises
are planned in such a manner that all the components are developed simultaneously. The sports performance
largely depends upon ‘the physical fitness components’.
1. Strength 2. Speed
3. Endurance 4. Flexibility
5. Co-ordinative abilities
STRENGTH
Strength is necessary for good performance in various games and sports.
There are many athletic events and games in which strength is most essential e.g.
shotput, discus, hammer and javelin throw, wrestling, judo, weight lifting, etc.
The strength is defined as greatest amount of force that muscles can produce
in a single effort. In other words, strength is considered as ability to overcome
resistance. The strength can be divided into three parts :
Maximum Strength : Maximum strength is the ability of muscles to overcome against maximum resistance.
Mainly maximum strength can be derived by voluntary actions. It is the ability of muscle or muscle group to
apply maximum force against resistance in a single effort. Maximum strength is important in sports where heavy
resistance is needed, e.g., weight lifting, throwing events, jumping event, etc.
Explosive Strength : Explosive strength is ability of the body to apply strength and high speed together.
The sports where explosive strength is needed are listed below :
(i) Take off in long jump, high jump, triple jump, etc.
(ii) Crouch start in sprinting.
(iii) Jumping in Basketball before taking rebound.
(iv) Jumping in Volleyball while spiking.
Strength Endurance : Strength Endurance is the combination of two components as well i.e., strength and
endurance. It is the ability of the muscles to overcome resistance under conditions of fatigue. The sports like judo
and wrestling require strength endurance because in the last moments of the fight the players have to apply
strength in spite of being fatigued. The long distance races also require strength endurance to finish the race.
Many sports like swimming, road cycling (road races) etc., also require strength endurance.
SPEED
Speed is defined as the ability of an individual to perform similar movements consecutively at the fastest
rate. Speed is different from mechanical speed because mechanical speed is calculated from distance covered
per unit of time where as many sports perform speed activities without covering any distance e.g. gymnastic
exercises performed on horizontal bar. According to G. Schnabel and G. Thiess, ‘it is the performance pre-requisite
to do motor actions under given conditions in minimum of time.” Many sports require speedy movements which
are listed below :
(i) Fast break in Basketball.
(ii) Running between the wickets while taking runs in cricket.

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(iii) Running fast while attacking, such as in hockey or football.

(iv) Sprint races such as 100 m. 200 m and 400 m.
(v) Generating speed before taking long jump and triple jump.
ENDURANCE
Endurance is also one of the important components of physical fitness. It is the ability of the body to work
for a long time without getting fatigued.

According to D. Harre, “Endurance is the ability to resist fatigue.” Endurance is basically divided into two parts.
(a) Muscular Endurance : It is the capacity of the muscle to work under the condition of fatigue
(b) Cardiovascular Endurance : It is the ability of cardio-respiratory system to provide oxygen even when
the body is under the conditions of fatigue.
The various games and sports, especially athletics, have two types of activities like aerobic and anaerobic.
Therefore endurance can be defined in this respect.
Aerobic Endurance : It is the ability to persist in the physical activities that rely heavily upon oxygen for
energy production.
Anaerobic Endurance : It is the ability to persist in physical activities of short duration that require high
rates of energy expenditure.
The athlete who runs long distance races requires more development of aerobic endurance whereas sprinters
require development of anaerobic endurance. Most of the games require development of endurance because
some games may consume more than 1 to 2 hours, e.g., a tennis match can last for several hours.
FLEXIBILITY
Flexibility is defined as the maximum range of movement possible at a joint. The flexibility is often overlooked
but it is also an important component.
According to Edward L. Fox “Flexibility is defined as the range of motion about a joint (static flexibility);
opposition or resistance of a joint to motion (dynamic flexibility).”
According to David R. Lamb, “flexibility is the range of motion of the body’s joint.”
The flexibility of the body largely depends upon the structure of joints, muscles, tendons and ligaments.
Flexibility is important to perform daily routine work because it can prevent injury, especially low back pain.
Flexibility is of two types.
(i) Active flexibility : It is the ability of the body to perform movements with greater amplitude, and range
without external help.
(ii) Passive flexibility : It is the ability of the body to perform movements with greater amplitude and range
with external help.
Flexibility is essential for games and sports like gymnastics, yoga, swimming and athletics.
CO-ORDINATIVE ABILITIES
The term co-ordinative ability was taken from the term ‘agility’. The term agility was discarded because it
was difficult to explain the meaning of it. The co-ordinative abilities mainly depend on central nervous system.

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The neuro- muscular co-ordination is primarily dependent factor for co- ordinative abilities. A person possessing
co-ordinative abilities can perform speedy and flexible movements. Kho-Kho is the best example of co- ordinative
abilities. How a runner runs in zigzag manner and how an opponent chases the runner ? The co-ordinative abilities
are interrelated with motor skills. These abilities often lead to graceful movements.
The following activities include co-ordinative abilities :
1. Gymnastic exercise, especially floor exercises and beam exercises.
2. Kho-Kho game
3. Basketball offensive and defensive movements.
COMPONENTS OF WELLNESS
The wellness is not just absene of disease but also has several components like physical, emotional, social,
intellectual, spiritual and occupational.
(a) Physical wellness : This component of wellness involves the ability of a person to carry out daily tasks,
develop cardiorespiratory fitness, enhance muscular fitness, maintain adequate nutrition and avoid drugs.
(b) Emotional wellness : Emotional wellness is the ability to control stress, anxiety, and to express
appropriately and comfortably. The emotionally well-adjusted person is able to live harmoniously with others
and cope successfully with worries and tensions associated with modern urban living.
(c) Social wellness : The social component of wellness creates the ability to interact successfully with
different people. The traits like cooperation, tolerance, sympathy, helpfulness, group cohesion, truthfulness and
loyalty make a person socially well-adjustable in the society.
(d) Intellectual wellness : Mental alertness is one of the major components of wellness. It helps in acting
quick and correct in any situation of life. This also helps to improve intellectual level, insight, thinking power and
anticipation.
(e) Spiritual wellness : The spiritual wellness makes a person ethically, morally justified and spiritually sound.
This directs him to have positive attitude towards life that enables him to grow, learn and meet new challenges.
This spiritual development with openness and respect for diversity, offers programmes that enhance personal
integrity, family values and community ethics.
(f) Occupational wellness : This aspect comprises of wellness that helps to achieve a balance between
work and leisure so that it promotes health and sense of job satisfaction.
FACTORS AFFECTING PHYSICAL FITNESS AND WELLNESS
The physical fitness and wellness vary from person to person. The following factors affect the physical fitness
and wellness :
(a) Heredity : Heredity means passing on biological characteristics from one generation to another. The
process of heredity is applicable to all living beings. Speed is mainly dependent on heredity that is why it is said
‘sprinters are born, not made.’ A person having more fast twitch fibers can be physically fit because he already
inheres the ability of speed.
(b) Regular exercise : Exercises generally improve the physical fitness and wellness. Regular training enables
a person to stay fit. Although it is important to note that physical fitness and wellness are not the same but if a
person does exercise regularly, he remains physically fit and healthy. On the other side, a healthy person can be
physically unfit if he does not exercise regularly.

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(c) Progressive overloading : To increase the performance of an . athlete, progressive overloading is required
but sometimes unsystematic overloading can be harmful for the athlete, that may lead to deterioration i of his
performance capacity. The downfall of the physical fitness can be due to the following reasons:

(a) Insufficient rest/sleep

(b) Rapid increase in load

(c) Excessive load due to daily routine work like family’s work, demand ] put up by studies, mode of
travelling, etc.

(d) Disproportion between intensity and recovery pause.

(e) Excessive incorrect practice and wrong teaching.

(f ) Participation in too many competitions and absence of transition period.

(d) Balanced diet: A good nutrition has an important role in developing 1 the fitness. A Dietician makes
daily dietary requirement as per the training schedule. Improper diet can lead to fitness problems. To maintain
physical fitness, careful attention to nutrition is necessary.
(e) Stress : Each person experiences stress. It has both positive and negative effects. Sometimes, positive
effect of stress can motivate a person to keep fit and on the other side, negative effect of stress can lead to many
problems like asthma, headache, depression, ulcers, etc. These diseases can have adverse effects on fitness and
wellness.
(f) Living style : The habits and living style has also an impact on ‘ fitness and wellness. A person having
good habits regarding exercise, diet j and personal hygiene, etc., is mostly physically fit and well.

(g) Cigarette smoking : Cigarette smoking damages the lungs and blood vessels. It raises pulse rate and
blood pressure. Smoking has adverse effect on fitness and wellness.
(h) Drugs : Amphetamines, cocaine, nicotine, LSD and other hallucinogens are a great threat to fitness and
well-being of an individual. Many athletes and weight lifters have started using drugs, especially anabolic steroids
which have side effects. The use of these drugs can lead to fitness and wellness problems.
(i) Rest, relaxation and recreation : These factors contribute a lot to health development. Relaxation is
essential for better mental health which is important to attain Fitness and wellness.
(j) Environment : The environment has also great impact on Fitness and wellness. A person residing in a
polluted area may face problems of Fitness and wellness. A person residing on hills is often found to be more fit.
ROLE OF EDUCATION IN TODAY’S SOCIETY
The role of education in general and physical education in particular is constantly undergoing change. At one
time education was left to the educators, but this is no longer the case, as characterized by parent committees,
student curriculum groups, widespread teacher evaluation procedures, and constant reappraisal of educational
policies.
Education contributes to the development, advancement, and perpetuation of the nation’s
culture. Educational institutions play a primary role in the development of the human resources of
society. Schools, colleges, and universities are clearly the most powerful and effective institutions that
this society has for the achievement of intellectual skill, knowledge, understanding, and appreciation

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necessary to make wise decisions, good judgments, and logical analyses of problems. Directly
or indirectly, these educational institutions are the chief agents of society’s progress, whether it is
progress concerned with knowledge, arts, technology, social conscience, or other areas essential
to a nation’s growth. Education must meet the challenges presented in society. In the present
decade this means that the nation’s schools and colleges should be concerned with the well-being of
students in their preparation for a productive and happy life in which their potentialities as individuals are enlarged
and fulfilled and in which freedom will be assured.
Physical education, as a phase of the total educational process, helps in achieving these purposes. It is one
link in a chain of many influences that help to realize the country’s ideals and contribute to the proper functioning
of American society. It is continually striving for excellence, so that it can become an increasingly dynamic force
in education.

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UNIT – IV : BIOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION

Meanings of Growth and Development

Generally word growth and development are used synonymously, however, there is a difference in the
meanings of these concepts. Technically, growth of an individual means increase in mass, while development is
the organization of that tissue into functional units or powers. Development of the child can be judged in part
by growth, but growth may occur without a corresponding development.

Nutrition and various hygienic factors condition growth and development. While physical education
influences growth, its chief interest is in development.

GROWTH
The process through which body increases in size and shape is known as growth. Process of growth is
biological in nature. An increase in mass is termed as growth. From the first growth of the fertilized ovum until
maturity of the individual is reached numerous forces determine growth. Some organs evens continue to grow
in old age also. Thus, a quantitative increase in the size and shape of the body is termed as growth. When these
organs changes in size and shape, it is known as physical growth. All the organs of body grow at different rate. For
this reason, growth is considered a tangible biological process. In this process, various organs of the human body
develop in respect of size, height and weight. There occurs an increase in the size of cells of body and muscles. In
body structure, various kinds of changes take place and these changes are of quantitative nature.

DEVELOPMENT
A process which brings human body towards the point of maturity is known development. In other words,
process of development is concerned with advancement of human body. The various kinds of qualitative changes
that takes place in human body are considered development in true sense.

Process of development is more concerned with external factors. If all these external factors are not ensured
properly, development will not take place properly. It can be said that the process under which capabilities of
an individual get expanded which provide him with greater facility in functioning is known as development.

Although concepts of development and growth are different, but they are inter-related to each other.
Growth is a means to achieve development. For the development of functional capacities of human beings,
growth functions as a basis. At no stage, it is possible to acquire proper development with improper growth.
Development of an individual is concerned with his mental, intellectual and social aspects. Development process
consists of acquisition of skills and knowledge of various fields.

Thus it can be said that both the processes of growth and development are complimentary to each other
and it is not possible to achieve one successfully without achieving another. Development is a life long procedure
while growth is a limited period process. An human being grow upto a certain age or period in his life but process
of development continues throughout the lifetime.

THE SEX AND AGE DIFFERENCES

Men and women differ with each other anatomically and physiolo- iogicaliy. Since these differences are
inherent ana unavoidable, as such the programme for both sexes should be completely diverse and divergent after

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a certain period of growth. Specially theie are problems to women ; in certain ways they seem to be hancicapped
and have not been able to make remarkable performance in the field of games and sports, when compared to men.
If we look at the rate of growth and development in case of boys and girls we will see that at different stages
of growth and development, there creep in invincible changes in boys and girls.
Until the age of puberty there are no significant differences in boys and girls. Afterwards the differences set
in because of (i; anatomical and physiological differences or changes in them and (ii ) object of their education
must differ in the same degree because the boys must be brought up to be men, and girls to be women. The
differencs, it should be appreciated characterising sexes are not merely superficial but significant because even
a layman considers them so profound that it is regarded as an insult to refer to a person to anotner sex than that
to which he or she rightly belongs.
I. Anatomical Differences,
(a) Size difference. Man surpasses woman in height and weight. This difference is even marked at birth also.
The new born boy is on an average longer than the new’ born girl. After puberty girls momentarily surpass boys
in height and weight ,* they mature earlier than boys. After her sixteenth year a woman grows slightly. A man’s
growth continues until his twenty third year.
(b) The shape of the female body is less angular than that of the boy. Her parts of the body are softly and
delicately formed due to the formation of weak bones and muscles. The skeleton is shorter in man, the bones
are heavier and show marked muscle traces.
(c) Woman has a comparatively long body and short limbs.
(d) In women the centre of gravity lies lower than in men, owns to the shorter limbs.
(e) The lumbar region of the spine is comparatively longer, the thoracic region comparatively shorter in
women than in men.
(f ) The thorax is thus shorter in women.
(g) The pelvic region is also comparatively broader in women than in men. The pelvis itself is also actually
more roomy in women than in men. This arrangement has been done automatically by Nature itself to facilitate
the child in the uterus. Thus the abdominal wall which is the main support of the viscera, is a weak part in women
especially in those women who have given birth to children. Much use of the lower extremities requires a firmly
consolidated pelvic girdle that is^to say, strong pelvic bones as firmly as possible united together. In this respect
women are inferior to men.
(h) The shoulder region is weaker in women than in men not only in regard to the muscles, but also in regard
to the skeleton, the clavicles being comparatively long and slender. That’s why women are inferior to men jn
shoulder strength.
(i) In women the lower extremities in all its parts are comparatively shorter than in men, the comparatively
great convergence of the thigh bones results in the knees being turned strongly inward, and that crux, when
the position of the femur is more vertical, as in running, points obliquely downward-outward. Because of this
movement of their lower extremities will lose both force and precision.
II. Physiological Differences.
(a) Muscular strength. In muscle strength women are weaker to men and no^amount of weight training
can reverse the order. An average man is much stronger than an average woman in grip strength, pulling and

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pushing ability. Not only women are unfit for hard work but even with light work they have not the. same staying
power as men. The Danish physiologist Asmussen has set the strength of the average female at 60% of the male
figure, with only about a half of this deficiency being attribute to her shorter stature.
(b) Blood circulation. Because of the smaller heart in women* there is low capacity of the heart to deliver
blood to the regions and organs. Heart rate is rapid in women than in men.
(c) Respiratory system. The thoracic cavity and lungs of the women are smaller than those of men. Hence
the relative efficiency of the thorax is smaller in women which is unsuitable for activities requiring endurance.
(d) Menstrual Circle. This brings a problem for a period of about five days each month. Although some
Olympic records have been established and women have competed with men in long course swimming very
successfully during the menstrual period, yet the doctors do not recommend heavy exercise during this period.
In normal circumstances, atleast one woman in seven is liable to be menstruating on any given day, and it is thus
an impossible task to arrange athletic competitions in such a way as to avoid periods.
(e) Pregnancy period. During early phase of pregnaney heavy programme may be continued but gradually
the load of work should be lessened. This fact also makes women inferior to men in carrying on the heavy work
of activity throughout.
Since woman have all these difficulties and differences with men their programme should be separated
from that of the men and they should not be made to compete with men. Since they have less arm strength, they
should not be made to do hanging exercises, long horse exercises, and swinging exercises. The exercises like pole-
vault which demand highly developed musculature, are prohibted for women. Women hare been found to be
emotionally weak, that’s why they should not be made to enter highly specialized fields of physical competition.
This may also be pointed out that woman is not lacking in self-control. But once her self control has broken down
and this happens more easily for them than for men, because the nervous system of the women will more easily
be affected than that of men, the manifestation will be much stronger and more incalculable.
HEREDITY AND ENVIRONMENT
Heredity is the transfer of characteristics from parent to offspring, either through their genes or through
the social institution called inheritance (for example, a title of nobility is passed from individual to individual
according to relevant customs and/or laws). Heredity determines what an organism may become, not what it will
become. Knowledge of the heredity or inheritance of plants and animals is important in many phases of our life.
What an organism becomes depends on both its heredity and environment. Heredity determines the individual’s
potential. Environment influences to what degree one reaches that potential
Heredity is very complex, and a geneticist cannot possibly analyze all the traits of an organism at once.
Instead, he studies only a few traits at a time. Many other traits are present. As the geneticists work out the solution
to each hereditary mystery, the geneticist must not forget that all organisms live in a complex environment. The
environment may affect the degree to which a hereditary trait develops. The geneticist must try to find out which
of the many parts of the environment may affect his results.
The modern science of genetics started with the work of Gregor Mendel. He found that a certain factor
in a plant cell determined the traits the plant would have. Thirty years after his discovery this determines was
given the name gene. Of the traits Mendel studied, he called dominant those at showed up in the offspring and
recessive those , the question I will ask is: how much of the variability observed between different individuals
is due to hereditary differences between them, and how much to differences in the environments under which
the individuals developed?

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In most organisms, including man, genetics information is transmitted from mother to daughter cells and from
one generation to the next by deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). The question is: How much of the variability observed
between different individuals is due to hereditary differences between them, and how much to differences in
the environments under which the individuals developed? It is elucidate by the discussion on “Heredity And
Environment” which is to help students learn more about themselves. They will learn why they develop into the
kind of individual they are. The functional aspects of these are DNA and Chromosomes. Genes and DNA
DNA, short for deoxyribonucleic acid, makes up the genes that transmit hereditary traits. The DNA molecule
looks like a long, twisted rope ladder. This is called the double helix. The ladder is made up of two coiled strands with
rungs between them. The rungs are composed of pairs of chemicals in different combinations. Each combination
carries instructions like the dot and dashes of the Morse Code. Each gene in the body is a DNA section with full
set of instructions for guiding the formation of just one particular protein. The different proteins made by the
genes direct the body’s functions throughout a person’s life.
Chromosomes
Genes and chromosomes provide the genetic link between generations. Chromosomes are strands of DNA
and protein found in the nucleus of virtually every cell, but with few exceptions seen only during the process of
cell division. The number of chromosomes in a cell is characteristic of the species. Some have very few, whereas
others may have more than a hundred. Ordinarily, every cell in the body of an organism contains the same
number of chromosomes. The most important exception is found in the case of gametes where half the usual
number is found. Human beings have 46 chromosomes in each cell, with the exception of the spermatozoa in
males and the ova in females, each of which has 23 chromosomes. Human chromosomes occur in pairs, the total
46 consisting of 23 pairs; 22 pairs of autosomes which are non-sex determining chromosomes. The member of
a pair are essentially identical, with the exception of sex chromosomes in males, and each pair is different from
any other pair. Plants and animals inherit chromosomes from their parents. Each plant and animal cell has a set of
chromosomes. Chromosomes, then, control the heredity of an organism. They carry the blueprint that determines
what kind of organism will develop.

Relationship between Heredity and Environment

Heredity is not the only thing that effects development. The environment also has an important effect.
Organisms can transmit some hereditary conditions to their offspring even if the parents do not show the trait.
Some traits do not appear to be affected by the environment. One of the first hereditary traits studied in humans
was polydactyly. An individual with polydactyly has more than ten figures or toes. This trait does not seem to
be affected by the environment at all. Other human traits like color blindness, baldness, blood type, skin color,
the ability to taste certain substances, the presence or absence of hairs on the middle of the fingers, and free or
attached ear lobes do not seem to be influenced by the environment.

BODY TYPE
“William Sheldon (1898-1977) was an American psychologist who devoted his life to observing the variety
of human bodies and temperaments. He was a keen observer of animals and birds as a child, and he turned this
talent to good effect by becoming an avid people-watcher, and out of his observations he gradually elaborated
his typology.” From Tracking the Elusive Human In the 1940s, Sheldon developed a theory that there are three
basic body types, or somatotypes (based on the three tissue layers: endoderm, mesoderm, and ectoderm), each
associated with personality characteristics, representing a correlation between physique and temperament.

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To further categorize a person’s somatotype, an individual is given a rating from 1 to 7 on each of the three
body types. 1 = very low; 7 = very high. For example:
 a stereotypical basketballer 1-1-7 (ectomorph)
 Mohammed Ali 1-7-1 (mesomorph)
 a pear-shaped person 7-1-1 (endomorph)
More typically, however, the person in the street could be something like:
 a slightly lanky person 5-2-3 (a bit ecomorphic)
 a person of average height who is moderately muscular 4-5-3 (a bit mesomorphic)
 a person who is slightly heavy-set 3-3-5 (a bit endomorphic)

Sheldon measured the proportions of hundreds of juvenile delinquent boys and concluded that they were
generally mesomorphs (Ornstein, 1993).

Endomorph
(1) They have better digestive system and can digest hard food. This gives them more energy.
(2) They have large roundhead with broad face square jaw and small ears.

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(3) Their abdomen is large ,full above the navel.

(4) They have short and thick neck, chest with fatty breasts.
(5) Their palms are broad with short fingers.
(6) Their feet are also broad with low arch.
(7) They have thick and hairy type of skin.
(8) They act first and think after wards.
(9) They are less secretive and are fond of making speeches in public places.
(10) They have heavy buttocks and heavy legs.
(11) They are very social and like social gathering. Ready to help the people when they are in trouble.
(12) They always overestimate their abilities.
(13) They remain in relaxed mood and do not feel irritated over small issues.
(14) They have butterfly tendencies and cannot stick to their day to day affairs.
(15) In games and sports they take up the activities such as power-lifting, heavy-weight wrestling, throwing
events and even short distance running.
Mesomorphy
1. They are medium type of individuals and known as athletic type persons.
2. They are heavy, hard and rectangular in outline with large and prominent bones.
3. Their face bones are prominent and long and has the shape of a long oval.
4. Their neck is strong and long, shoulders are broad with heavy and prominent clavicle bones.
5. Their abdomen is large with low waist.
6. They have heavy buttocks with heavy fore legs.
7. Their skin is rough and the complexion is not so good.
8. They are quite dominant, assertive, energetic and action packed, and love to take risks.
9. They are bold, brave and take actions quickly whenever they face any problem.
10. They are courageous and open- minded and show directness in any kind of work.
Ectomorph
1. They have poor digestive system and the energy output is also less.
2. They have delicate body structure.
3. Their face is small, forehead and chin is pointed and nose is sharp.
4. They have long slender neck, long narrow thorax, drooping and hanging shoulders with long arms.
5. Their abdomen is flat with hollow above navel.
6. They have thin buttock and log thin legs.
7. Their hands are small but fingers and toes are long.

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8. Their feet are also long with high arch.

9. They are tall and thin built with poor vital capacity
10. Their skin is soft but with more hairy growth.
11. Their reflections are quick but actions are very slow.
12. They always under estimate their abilities but want to lead an ambitious life.
13. They feel irritated, over-tensed and excited whenever they face any trouble and want to be left alone.
14. They are very submissive and one track minded and solve their problems more at the mental level
with less use of energy.
15. They take up sports activities like basket ball, volley ball, and even long duration events.
It is suggested that the above mentioned body types do not always provide authentic information. Therefore,
other factors such a sage, physical maturity, interest aptitude, skill, strength, physical fitness combined with
understanding of body types may be used in making judgments.

Kretschmer Classification
Kretschmer is also known for developing a classification system that can be seen as one of the earliest
exponents of a constitutional (the total plan or philosophy on which something is constructed) approach. His
classification system was based on three main body types: asthenic/leptosomic (thin, small, weak), athletic
(muscular, large–boned), and pyknic (stocky, fat). (The athletic category was later combined into the category
asthenic/leptosomic.) Each of these body types was associated with certain personality traits and, in a more
extreme form, psychopathologies. Kretschmer believed that pyknic persons were friendly, interpersonally
dependent, and gregarious. In a more extreme version of these traits, this would mean for example that the obese
are predisposed toward manic-depressive illness. Thin types were associated with introversion and timidity. This
was seen as a milder form of the negative symptoms exhibited by withdrawn schizophrenics. However, the idea
of the association of body types with personality traits is no longer influential in personality theory.

DIFFERENCES IN BOYS AND GIRLS.

The physical educator should be cognizant of certain differences in the physical makeup of boys and girls.
The pelvic girdlo of the female is much broader than that of the male and does not completely develop until in
the twenties. This means that activities that would result in any pull on this region should be guarded against.
Boys are stronger than girls, especially in the shoulder girdle region. The thigh bones of girls join the pelvis at a
more oblique angle than that of boys. The center of gravity is lower in girls. In respect to body weight the muscular
strength of girls is lower than in boys.
In respect to strength, research has indicated that the female is less responsive to training than the male.
It has been found that the body temperature of the female rises 2° to 3° C. higher than the males before the
sweating and cooling off process begins. Such a factor must be taken into consideration in dealing with vigorous
physical activities, such as swimming in hot weather. Other differences include a more stable knee joint in girls
than in boys, greater length of bones in boys than girls, and, on the average, greater height and weight in boys
than girls. The skeletal structure of the female makes her more susceptible to athletic injuries than the male.
Injuries involving overstraining, such as in foot deficiencies and tendon inflammations, have been found to be
more common in the female.

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Activities that arc provided for girls and women should be selected in light of psychological as well as
physiological considerations. Those that emphasize feminine qualities such as grace and rhythm and involve a
minimum of body contact should receive priority. Furthermore, regularity in engaging in physical activity should
be stressed, even during the menstrual period, if there are no harmful results.
Age and Sex Differences in Relation to Physical Activities and Sports
Physical education teachers should be aware of the fact that some differences in boys and girls are of great
importance. Up to puberty boys and girls are hardly distinguished but as they cross this stage, marked differences
become evident in their sexes. These differences are important in structuring and formulating activity programme
for both sexes. These differences are not only biologically prominent, but social factors also impinge upon as men
and women have to take up different roles. So while activity programme it is necessary that marked differences in
boys and girls are taken into consideration not again saying the fact that there should be separate programmes.
Anatomical and Physiological Differences between Male and Female

Female Male

Girls grow faster up to the age of early Before the adolescence age, growth in boys
1. adolescence and slow down after the age of 1. is slow and they grow faster after the age of
14 years 14 -16 years.

Girls are smaller in size i.e. height and they Boys are generally taller in size i.e. height and
2. 2.
attain maturity in early age. maturity comes in the late stage.
Female has broader and shallow pelvis which Male has narrow pelvis (Hips). They can
3. 3.
causes difficulty in running. perform better in running events.
Man has shorter trunk and long legs. Their
centre of gravity is high; this results in unstable
4. Women have large body for swimming. 4. position.They are more frequent in shifting
exercise and jumping but have disadvantage
in balancing events as gymnastics.
Female’s shoulders are weaker strength and Male has broader and strong shoulders
narrow, their bones and cartilages are also with strong bones and cartilages. They can
5. weak. They have disadvantage in throwing 5. perform better throwing events, rope climbing,
events, lifting activities, and hanging movements pole valt, and circling activities e.g. Roman
in gymnastics. rings in Gymnastics.
Female stops growing in height around the age Boys generally continue to grow until the age
6. 6.
of 18 to 20 years. of about 20 to 23 years.
Their muscular strength is less because of
Men have more muscle power, due to their
different structure of muscles and thereby
muscle structure, they have better ability
comparatively cannot improve muscle power
7. 7. in performing, slapping, putting, puslading,
even with weight training and cannot perform
pushing, striking, kicking and squeezing
better in pulling, pushing, punching and lifting
activities.
activities.
Women have smaller heart and faster pulse rate
Man has large heart because of more muscle
resulting in more rapid increase in pulse rate at
8. 8. tissues, circulation is better and the pulse
the beginning of the exercise and recovery is
rate is slow.
much slow after the exercise.

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Female Male
Women have slower reaction time and Man has better reaction time and movement
9. 9.
movement time. time.
Women are emotionally weak; the effect of
Men are emotionally stronger; defeat, victory,
defeat, victory, accident and injury on them is
10. 10. accident etc. do not have much effect on
for longer time and they cannot recover from
them. They overcome such shocks easily.
the shocks easily.
Menstruation in women is a biological activity,
and has little effect on physical activists. It is Men do not have such biological activity
11. 11.
more psychological; than physiological, hard and can perform any type of activity.
training should be avoided.
Women breathe more shallowly with the upper Men tend to breathe deeper and hence more
12. 12.
part of the chest. diagragmatically.

RECIPROCAL INNERVATIONS
Reciprocal innervations refer to the part that antagonistic muscles play in performing coordinated movements.
This principle works on the theory that whenever a group of muscles contracts to perform a movement, the
antagonistic muscles relax, so that a coordinated, smooth, rhythmical movement results. A good example of this
principle is the movement of flexing the aim. The biceps contracts and the antagonistic muscle, or triceps, relaxes,
resulting in free and easy action. When a person is a novice in a game, he quite often performs in an awkward and
uncoordinated manner because his antagonistic muscles do not relax and allow for free and easy movement. The
proper coordinations between the muscle groups have not been established. René Descartes (1596-1650) was
one of the first to conceive a model of reciprocal innervation (in 1626) as the principle that provides for the control
of agonist and antagonist muscles. Reciprocal innervation describes skeletal muscles as existing in antagonistic
pairs, with contraction of one muscle producing forces opposite to those generated by contraction of the other.
For example, in the human arm, the triceps acts to extend the lower arm outward while the biceps acts to flex
the lower arm inward. In order to reach optimum efficiency, contraction of opposing muscles must be inhibited
while muscles with the desired action are excited. This reciprocal innervation occurs so that the contraction of a
muscle results in the simultaneous relaxation of its corresponding antagonist.

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UNIT – V : PSYCHOLOGICAL & SOCIOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION

Psychology :
The subject of psychology is very old but the name given to it, is fairly new. It was Rudolf Geocle who used
this name first time in 1590. The repeated world psychology orginated from two Greek words. Psyche and Logos,
the former meaning soul and the latter ‘talk about’ or ‘science’. Thus psychology, in its ordinary sense means the
science of soul. The old philosophers were very much interested in the study of human nature especially his soul
and hence psychology was also studied alongwith philosophy. But this concept suffers from extreme vagueness
as it cannot define soul. Soul has no physical existence. Neither it can be seen nor touched. It has neither weight
nor Volume.
From soul the concept shifted to mind. And it was said ‘psycholgy is the study of mind’, but the same trouble
of obscurity came forward as to ‘what is mind’. Mind is not an organ of the body like brain or heart. It is only
a process of nervous system which results into a behaviour. So it is also far from perfection. Once a laughing
philosopher said, “What is mind?’ ‘No matter.’ What is matter?’ ‘Never mind.’
According to Descartes (1596—1650) the essence of mind was ‘consciousness’. Hence since that time
psychology bad been defined as the study of consciousness. Consciousness means awareness. This definition
was also discarded because consciouness could not be studied objectively for it is most personal and subjective.
The subject can only study himself while he is conscious and that too through introspection. Later on, the
school of psycho-analysis gave a crumbling jolt to this concept because they came forward with the theory of
unconsciousness. They contended that the function of the brain or mind continues even if we are a sleep. This
school led by Freud proposed that psychology is the study of mental processes—conscious and unconscious.
The modern school of behaviourists pioneered by Watson, defined psychology as the science of behaviour.
Behaviour stands for all the visible activities of an individual which can be put to an experiment or analysis.
Behaviour can be observed objectively. Therefore this definition of Psychology as the science of behaviour was
changed to the study of behaviour which is positive, experimental and objective in its nature.
MEANING OF SOCIOLOGY
r
Sociology word is derived from Latin word ‘Societus’ meaning society and Greek word “Logos’ meaning
study or science. This means sociology is the science of society. In other words sociology is the study of man’s
behaviour in group or of the inter-action among human beings, of social relationships and the processes by
which human activity takes place.
Definition — “Sociology is the science of society or of social phenomena” by L.F. Ward. “The subject-matter
of sociology is the inter-action of human mind. By L.T. Hobhouse.
WHAT IS SOCIALIZATION?
Socialization is an active process of learning and social development, which occurs as we interact with one
another and become acquainted with the social world in which we live. It involves the formation of ideas about
who we are and what is important in our lives. We are not simply passive learners in the socialization process. We
actively participate in our own socialization as we influence those who influence us. We actively interpret what
we see and hear, and we accept, resist, or revise the massages we receive about who we are, about the world, and
about what we should do as we make our way in the world. Therefore, socialization is not a one way process of
social influence through which we are moulded and shaped. Instead, it is an interactive process through which
we actively connect with others, synthesize information, and make decisions that shape out own lives and the
social world around us.

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This definition of socialization, which I use to guide my research, is based on a combination of critical and
interactions theories. Therefore, not all sociologists would agree with it. Those using functionalist or conflict
theory approaches, for example, would define socialization in slightly different terms. Their definitions have an
impact on how they do research and the questions they ask about sports and socialization.
New Approaches to Socialization
Many sociologists have become dissatisfied with the assumptions inherent in the internalization model of
socialization use in research by functionalists and conflict theoretics. They are not comfortable with the idea that
we humans are either products of society and its system needs or are victims of economic forces. Therefore, many
researchers have turned to interrelations models of socialization and use new methods to study socialization
processes.

LEARNING – DEFINITION AND MEANING

Learning is acquiring new, or modifying and reinforcing, existing knowledge, behaviors, skills, values,
or preferences and may involve synthesizing different types of information. The ability to learn is possessed
by humans, animals and some machines. Progress over time tends to follow learning curves. Learning is not
compulsory; it is contextual. It does not happen all at once, but builds upon and is shaped by what we already
know. To that end, learning may be viewed as a process, rather than a collection of factual and procedural
knowledge. Learning produces changes in the organism and the changes produced are relatively permanent.
Human learning may occur as part of education, personal development, schooling, or training. It may be
goal-oriented and may be aided by motivation. The study of how learning occurs is part of neuropsychology,
educational psychology, learning theory, and pedagogy. Learning may occur as a result of habituation or classical
conditioning, seen in many animal species, or as a result of more complex activities such as play, seen only in
relatively intelligent animals. Learning may occur consciously or without conscious awareness. Learning that an
aversive event can’t be avoided nor escaped is called learned helplessness. There is evidence for human behavioral
learning prenatally, in which habituation has been observed as early as 32 weeks into gestation, indicating that
the central nervous system is sufficiently developed and primed for learning and memory to occur very early on
in development.
Play has been approached by several theorists as the first form of learning. Children experiment with the
world, learn the rules, and learn to interact through play. Lev Vygotsky agrees that play is pivotal for children’s
development, since they make meaning of their environment through play. 85 percent of brain development
occurs during the first five years of a child’s life The context of conversation based on moral reasoning offers some
proper observations on the responsibilities of parents.
PAVLOV: CLASSICAL CONDITIONING – CONDITION RESPONSE THEORY
The beginning of the modern, scientific study of learning may be found in the work of Ivan P. Pavlov, a
Russian physiologist. Pavlov, known as the “Father of Learning Theory,” He was the first to make the relationship
between stimulus and response explicit. He is primarily responsible for the theory of classical conditioning.
Classical conditioning occurs when a stimulus that elicits a response is paired with another stimulus that initially
does not elicit a response in its own. Over time, this second stimulus causes a similar response because it is
associated with the first stimulus.
Pavlov’s famous experiment in which a dog is conditioned to salivate in the absence of food: He noticed that
his dogs would salivate at the sight of food at feeding time. Thus, Pavlov spoke of an unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

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(food) eliciting an unconditioned response (UCR). He conducted

a number of conditioning trials by pairing a neutral stimulus (a
bell) with a stimulus known to cause a salivation response in
dogs. Over time, his dogs learned to salivate at the sound of
the bell alone. This bell is a conditioned stimulus (CS), and the
salivation a conditioned response (CR) (Robertson, Zielinski and
Ward, 1984, 193).
Classical conditioning utilizes an innate response.Learners
are essentially passive, since they do not consciously control the
emission of the response. ... Reinforcement is also important in classical conditioning. While the subject is learning
to give the conditioned response, a reinforcement is presented (Robertson and Ward, 1984, 193).

Unconditioned Stimulus (US) - stimulus

naturally triggers a response
Unconditioned Response (UR) - unlearned,
natural response to the UCS
Conditioned Stimulus (CS) - previously neutral
stimulus triggers a response
Conditioned Response (CR) - learned response
to a neutral stimulus
COMPONENTS OF CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
The easiest place to start is with a little example.
Consider a hungry dog who sees a bowl of food. Something like this might happen:
Food —> Salivation
The dog is hungry, the dog sees the food, and the dog salivates. This is a natural sequence of events, an
unconscious, uncontrolled, and unlearned relationship. See the food, and then salivate. Ring a bell when presenting
the food to the hungry dog (and before the dog salivates). Thus, when repeat this action (food and bell given
simultaneously) at several meals. Every time the dog sees the food, the dog also hears the bell. Ding-dong, Alpo.
Bell —> Salivate
The bell elicits the same response the sight of the food gets. Over repeated trials, the dog has learned to
associate the bell with the food and now the bell has the power to produce the same response as the food. This
is the essence of Classical Conditioning. It really is that simple. Start with two things that are already connected
with each other (food and salivation). Then add a third thing (bell) for several trials. Eventually, this third thing
may become so strongly associated that it has the power to produce the old behavior.
The following diagrams are self explained the term of conditioning
 Food ——————————> Salivation
 Unconditioned Stimulus —> Unconditioned Response

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“Unconditioned” simply means that the stimulus and the response are naturally connected. They just came
that way, hard wired together like a horse and carriage and love and marriage as the song goes. “Unconditioned”
means that this connection was already present before we got there and started messing around with the dog
or the child or the spouse.
“Stimulus” simply means the thing that starts it while “response” means the thing that ends it. A stimulus
elicits and a response is elicited. (This is circular reasoning, true, but hang in there.) Another diagram,
 Conditioning Stimulus
 Bell
 with
 Food ———————————> Salivation
 Unconditioned Stimulus———> Unconditioned Response
We already know that “Unconditioned” means unlearned, untaught, preexisting, already-present-before-
we-got-there. “Conditioning” just means the opposite. It means that we are trying to associate, connect, bond,
link something new with the old relationship. And we want this new thing to elicit (rather than be elicited) so it
will be a stimulus and not a response. Finally, after many trials we hope for,
• Bell ——————————> Salivation
• Conditioned Stimulus —> Conditioned Response
Let’s review these concepts.
1. Unconditioned Stimulus: a thing that can already elicit a response.
2. Unconditioned Response: a thing that is already elicited by a stimulus.
3. Unconditioned Relationship: an existing stimulus-response connection.

4. Conditioning Stimulus: a new stimulus we deliver the same time we give the old stimulus.

5. Conditioned Relationship: the new stimulus-response relationship we created by associating a new stimulus
with an old response.

There are two key parts. First, we start with an existing relationship, Unconditioned Stimulus —>
Unconditioned Response. Second, we pair a new thing (Conditioning Stimulus) with the existing elationship,
until the new thing has the power to elicit the old response.

Thorndike: Trail and Error theory of Learning ( Instrumental Conditioning) relationship

Connectionism (E. Thorndike) Overview:
In addition to classical conditioning, instrumental conditioning is the other major
approach to learning. Laboratory and theoretical analyses of instrumental conditioning
begin in earnest with the work of E. L. Thorndike in 1898. Thorndike’s original intent was
to study animal intelligence (Domjan and Burkhard, 1986, 102). The learning theory of
Edward L. Thorndike Thorndike represents the original S-R framework of behavioral psychology: Learning is the

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result of associations forming between stimuli and responses. Such associations or “habits” become strengthened
or weakened by the nature and frequency of the S-R pairings. The paradigm for S-R theory was trial and error
learning in which certain responses come to dominate others due to rewards. The hallmark of connectionism (like
all behavioral theory) was that learning could be adequately explained without referring to any unobservable
internal states.

In a classic behaviorist Edward L. Thorndike (1913), conducted an experiment to investigate animals’ response
in certain situations. In his study, hungry cats had to learn to pull a string hanging in a “puzzle box” in order for
a door to open that let them escape and get food. What was involved in learning to escape in this manner?
Thorndike concluded that the cats did not think about how to escape and then do it; instead, they engaged
in trial-and-error behavior; see Box 1.1. Sometimes a cat in the puzzle box accidentally pulled the strings while
playing and the door opened, allowing the cat to escape. But this event did not appear to produce an insight
on the part of the cat because, when placed in the puzzle box again, the cat did not immediately pull the string
to escape. Instead, it took a number of trials for the cats to learn through trial and error. Thorndike argued that
rewards (e.g., food) increased the strength of connections between stimuli and responses. The explanation of
what appeared to be complex problem-solving phenomena as escaping from a complicated puzzle box could
thus be explained without recourse to unobservable mental events, such as thinking.

BOX 1.1 A Cat’s Learning

“When cat put into the box, the cat would show evident
signs of discomfort and impulse to escape from confinement. It
tries to squeeze through any opening; it claws and bites at the
wire; it thrusts its paws out through any opening and claws at
everything it reaches. . . . It does not pay very much attention
to the food outside but seems simply to strive instinctively to
escape from confinement. . . . The cat that is clawing all over the
box in her impulsive struggle will probably claw the string or
loop or button so as to open the door. And gradually all the other
unsuccessful impulses will be stamped out and the particular
impulse leading to the successful act will be stamped in by the resulting pleasure, until, after many trials, the cat
will, when put in the box, immediately claw the button or loop in a definite way” (Thorndike, 1913:13).

Thorndike interpreted the results of his studies as reflecting the learning of an association. He believed
that such successful escapes led to the learning of an association between the stimuli inside the puzzle box and
the escape response. As the association, or connection, between the box and the successful responses became
stronger, the cat came to make those responses whenever it was confined in the cage. The consequence of the
successful responses — escaping the cage —strengthened the association between the box stimuli and those
responses (Domjan and Burkhard, 1986, 103).

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Imitation

Bandura has brought out the role of imitation in learning. According to Bandura learning
is a consequence of social interaction and imitation. The general tendency to imitate is naturally
found in children. This general tendency helps the children in varieties of learning with reference to
1. Language growth 2. Skill development 3. Formation of social and moral attitudes. Generally the children
acquire large units of behaviour by watching and imitating others such as parents, teachers, peers, and famous
people. Watching and imitation, such modeling not only lead to modification of existing behaviour also copying
an entirely new response pattern not early known to them. So the parents and teachers are in need of placing
good models before children to learn by imitation. In addition with this, the parents and teachers themselves are
being worthy examples of imitative earning. As per Bandura concept, teacher’s model of social behaviour in the
class room such as calmness, friendliness, cooperativeness or aggressiveness and aloofness will act as initiator
of behaviour changes in children or will trigger off similar behaviour patterns in them.

INSIGHT LEARNING

Insight is the understanding that the whole is more than the sum of the parts. Learning
by insight occurs when the learner suddenly grasps the way elements of a problem situation are
connected. The term describes a person’s unplanned discovery of a solution to a problem — often
referred to as the ”ah-ha” phenomenon. That phenomenon results from a mental reorganization of
ideas and concepts rather than from simple trial and error. Some individuals gain insight more rapidly than
others. Individual backgrounds affect each learner’s ability to gain insight, as does the sequence in which you
present basic learning experiences. To help students gain insight, you must stimulate thinking. Use appropriate
questions to get their minds working. Encourage thought rather than rote memorization by using questions that
require associations, comparisons, and contrasts.

LAWS OF LEARNING

Laws of learning are attempts to define the fundamental conditions of the learning process. The classic
example of Thorndike’s S-R theory was a cat learning to escape from a “puzzle box” by pressing a lever inside the
box. After much trial and error behavior, the cat learns to associate pressing the lever (S) with opening the door
(R). This S-R connection is established because it results in a satisfying state of affairs (escape from the box). Based
on the results of the experiment, Thorndike formulated the laws of learning. Thorndike’s theory consists of three
primary laws as law of effect, law of exercise, law of readiness. The law of exercise specifies that the connection was
established because the S-R pairing occurred many times (the law of effect) and was rewarded (law of effect) as
well as forming a single sequence (law of readiness). Each of these laws has common sense applications based on
lessons people have learned over the years. Mastery of these applications will greatly enhance the ability to

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influence the students to learn and perform at a high level.

The Law of Effect:

The law of effect is that learning accompanied a pleasant or satisfying feeling is strengthened, but that
learning associated with unpleasant and unsatisfying feeling is weakened.
Learning

Associated with

Satisfying or pleasant Unsatisfying or

experience unpleasant
experience

Learning strengthened Learning weakened

This principle pertains to the feeling or emotional state following the learning experience. When a child finds
correct solution to the question, he feels pleased about his achievement and the connections between stimulus
and response are consequently strengthened. If the incorrect solutions finds to the question he feels annoyance
about his effort. These associated feelings of annoyance tend to rub about the connection that has been made.
Pupils avoid problems and circumstances that have annoyed them and approach with interest situations in which
they have had satisfying experiences. Thus experiences and feelings that accompany the responses develop
mental set for future behavior, as well as strengthening or weakening the response with which they are associated.

Law of readiness:
Law of readiness refers the principle of readiness, described by saying that “when a person feels ready to act
ready to learn he acts more effectively and efficiently he learns more efficiently and effectively and with greater
satisfaction than when not ready” If a person feels ready to act and is prevented from doing so, he feels annoyed.
A synonymous term for readiness is mental set. A student has a mental set to do his lessons when he is disposed
to work at the. Other stimuli do not then distract him. He is interested in lessons. Therefore willing to concentrate
on the tasks toward which his attention is directed. As he continues, his mind-set may weaken and the time is
reached when continuing to act in a direction that earlier was satisfying becomes annoying. If a student has no
mental-set when he is directed to do a task, he will not learn easily. If however, the lesson proves interesting and
captures his attention his learning efficiency will improved and reach a high point.

Much of the passive and unprofitable studying done by pupils is due to the fact that they have no mindset

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for work but merely approach it in a routine and perfunctory way. A readiness to master a problem is equivalent
to a desire to do so. One of the fundamental duties of a teacher is to develop a readiness in children to learn
their lessons. A good assignment should raise the interesting questions among the students. It helps them to
be anxious to study. A teacher who is specific in her assignments and asks interesting questions for the students
to solve arouses their curiosity and develops in them a favorable mind-set toward the assignment. On the other
hand, the teacher who perfunctory takes up one lesson after the other in mechanical order fails to develop the
pupil’s readiness for their lessons.

Law of use and disuse

Law of readiness refers that when reread our lessons a number of times in order to learn them. Drill is
also based on the principle that repetition fixes the facts to be learned.Children spending much time repeating
arithmetic combinations, writing the words of spelling lessons a number of times in order to establish their
meaning.Lack of practice cause the memory of learned materials to weaken: and in general the longer periods
of disuse, the greater the loss.

The Law of Exercise:

All changes that are produced in human intellect, character and skill happen in accord with and as a result of,
certain fundamental laws of change. The first is the Law of Exercise, that, other things being equal, the oftener or
more emphatically a given response is connected with a certain situation, the more likely it is to be made to that
situation in the future.... This law may be more briefly stated as: ‘Other things being equal, exercise strengthens
the bond between situation and response.’ (Thorndike, 1912, pp.95-96). Connections become strengthened with
practice and weakened when practice is discontinued.

TYPES OF LEARNING

Primary learning

The primary learning consists of the facts, principles, theories etc. that are the main core of the lessons
in particular and the curriculum in general. Illustrate the primary learning. Let us assume that the lessons being
studied are the Track and Field rules and skills. The primary learning drill consists of knowledge of rules, movements
and mechanics. The basic and traditional facts constitute the primary learning.

Associate Learning

While studying the rules and fundamental skills of Track and field, the student become interested in the
history of the section. They relate its historical development to Track and field events characteristics. They also
become interested in other aspects related to athletes dominant in events and the topography conditions. Many
related historical, economic and geographical facts will be learned. Such related facts are called associated learning.

Concomitant learning
In studying the rules and skills of track and field, certain attitudes and points of view are sure to develop.
Certainly the students will appreciate the healthy life as outcomes from participation in track and field, having
the social, psychological, and social psychological development from learning the rules and skills of track field.
These are known as concomitant learning.

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TRANSFER OF LEARNING
Transfer is the process of applying past learning to new but somewhat similar situations. The theory
suggests that transfer of learning depends upon the presence of identical elements in the original and new
learning situations; i.e., transfer is always specific, never general. In later versions of the theory, the concept of
“belongingness” was introduced; connections are more readily established if the person perceives that stimuli
or responses go together (c.f. Gestalt principles). Another concept introduced was “polarity” which specifies that
connections occur more easily in the direction in which they were originally formed than the opposite. Thorndike
also introduced the “spread of effect” idea, i.e., rewards affect not only the connection that produced them but
temporally adjacent connections as well.

LEARNING CURVE:
Learning curves vary from person to person, from school subject to school subject, according to whether
the learning period is short or long, the materials hard or easy. Even though there is great variation, certain
characteristics of the course of learning should be discussed as general principles. In a general way the curve of
the learning may be divided into three sections.

1. the beginning
2. the end
3. the period between the beginning and the end
Slow Initial Start: Inorder to have something concrete to describe it has to discuss two simple learning curves.
The initial progress according to figure show. Apparently, little is gained at the beginning.

Concave & convex

Factors and conditions affecting the curves of learning and levels of performance:
Curves refer the development and acquisition of learners follows interesting courses. Curves showing growth
and development may represent a composite of many abilities, or they may represent the growth of more specific
abilities. Curves depicting their increase in speed and accuracy show definite trends. In the attempts of persons/
player to develop ability in games and sports, the course of learning can be depicted and described graphically.
The learners would so through various characteristics experiences. In the beginning, their progress might vary.
Initial learning would be slow in some instances and more rapid in others. In the course of all learning at a time
has reached when no progress is made for a time, or when the learner seems to be at a dead level. Generally, he
improves and emerges from the period of no growth to reach eventually a point where no matter how hard he
tries he can improve no further.

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If a chart is made day-by-day on learning and performance greater variations in efficiency will be found.
On one day, a player will be twice as efficient as on another, problems that are difficult at one time will be much
easier at another.
Fluctuations in individual abilities are characteristic of all and can not be avoided. Volleyball player spiking,
serving and ball handling perform themselves better at different times. They vary in their efficiency from day to
day and in general players learn more readily on some occasions than no others.

COGNITIVE DOMAIN
This domain includes knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation, which
are responsible for the development of intellectual ability and skill. This objective is concerned with increasing
the knowledge, improving problem solving abilities, clarifying understandings, and developing and identifying
concepts. As intellectual, physical and emotional developments are closely related, the physical education
programmes contribute to cognitive development by providing knowledge and modifying behaviour in regard
to good health practices, by promoting physical fitness and by aiding in the process of social and emotional
development which leads to a more positive self-concept.
It has been found that a child’s earliest learning movements such as walking, running, reaching etc. are motor
in nature and form the foundations of subsequent learnings which require knowledge in order to co-ordinate
the mind with the muscles. Learning of any skill requires mental alterness, awareness and efforts.
During competitive situations an athlete has to face many tough situations and problems, and has to
adopt strategies and moves to’ counter the same. This effort requires further intellectual abilities permitting him
to comprehend and analyse the situation and then to apply the accumulated knowledge. From these come th
ability to interpret, evaluate, think and make judgements.
INTELLIGENCE : Intelligence is the aggregate mental capacity or energy of an individual to act purposefully,
to think rationally, and to deal effectively with one’s environment, Intelligence involves awareness, is goal
directed, and has value. It is an ability to undertake the activities that are difficult, complex, and which lead to
the creation of something new and different, Intelligence of an individual plays an important role in effecting
physical performance. The more complex and the more interpretative the movement, the greater the amount of
intelligence necessary to comprehend. Sports activities involve complex skilled actions. Since all skilled behavour
is intelligent behaviour, relationship between sports performance and intelligence cannot be denied.
ATTITUDE: Attitudes are about thoughts and feelings. Attitude is often thought to predict behaviour.
Attitudinal responses are also evaluative in nature. They are significant in deciding the kind and extent of the
learning that takes place and reflect the likes and dislikes concerning a specified object of action. For example, if a
child says “I like running”, it reflects his attitude towards running, and if a child says, “ I don’t like running” it shows
this child’s attitude towards running. Attitudes involve knowledge and beliefs. Attitudes are developed through
direct experience and interpersonal communication. Positive beliefs and values concerning physical activity
result in development of good and positive attitudes, enabling the athlete to strive hard for better performance.
EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT -- Process of bringing emotional stability in child is an equally essential function
of family as others. This function includes the aspects like love, affection, anger, competition, cooperation etc which
must be controlled efficiently. Proper care and guidance of children by parents (family) develop the emotional
status. Emotional stability is required to play effective role in society controlling of emotions in children highly
depends upon the family atmosphere.

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EMOTIONAL BALANCE
Sports psychology analysis an athlete s emotional states and feelings that indicate the degree to which he/
she is ready to perform in the competitions. Sports psychology helps in bring balanced emotional state of an
athlete. It provides opportunities and studies to make plays emotionally fit and ready for competitions.
INTEREST OF AN ATHLETE
An athlete can learn of perform good skills until he/ she is not interested in learning or performing sports
psychology analysis an individuals interest, so that the same individual can proceed further to learn game of its
interest. Sport psychology assist in maintaining the desired interest in order to learn and perform well.
CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION: CULTURE
Culture is one of the important concepts in social sciences. It is commonly used in psychology’, physical
education and Sports. It is the main concept in Anthropology and a fundamental one. In sociology. The study
of society or any aspect of it becomes incomplete without culture. Culture and society go together. They are
inseparable. Of all the animals, human being alone is cultural. What distinguishes man from animal, human society
from animal society is culture. That way, culture is an ingredient of human society. The concept of cultureless
human society is unthinkable and non-existent.
Meaning of Culture: The term Culture simply means “a design for living” Culture refers to both, “way of thinking
and living” or “traditional practices In otherwords, culture means, “an advanced stale of civilisation ’’.Culture is
something internal. It refers to intrinsic values ’’Culture is what we are. civilization is what we have”. Both are man
made. One is for his comfort and luxury and the other for his satisfaction and happiness. Culture is the breeding
ground of civilization. Civilization represents “material c allure ” and culture implies “non-material culture ”.
Definition of Culture:
1. B. Malinowski has defined culture as the “cumulative creation of man”. He also regards culture as the handiwork
of man and the medium through which he achieves his ends.
2. Graham Wallas, an English sociologist has defined culture “as an accumulation of thoughts, values and objects;
it is the social heritage acquired by us from preceding generations through, learning, as distinguished from
the biological heritage acquired by us from preceding generations through learning, as distinguished from
the biological heritage which is passed on to us automatically through the genes”.
3. C.C. North is of the opinion that culture “consists in the instruments constituted by man to assist him in
satisfying his wants ”.
4. Robert Bierstedt is of the opinion that “culture is the complex whole that consists of all the ways we think
and do and everything we have as members of society”.
5. E.V. de Roberty regards culture as “the body of thoughts and knowledge, both theoretical and practical,
which only man can possess”.
SOCIAL ACCEPTANCE AND RECOGNITION
Participation in the physical education activities provides opportunities for the development of desirable
social traits needed for adjustment to the social life in general. Some worth while traits are:
-friendliness
-cooperation

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-respect for the rights of others

-good sports worship
-honesty in group competition
The objectives of physical education are often more specific than the goal, or aim, and purpose and are
comprised of particular outcomes. Usually plural, in combination they result in the achievement of a purpose
and an aim. Professional colleagues and the general public often learn about physical education’s worth through
an examination of its objectives and their fulfilment.
Dudley Sargent, a recognized leader in physical education for college students in the late 1800s and
early 1900s, was an authority in teacher training and in anthropocentric measurements of the positive effects
of exercise on the body. He suggested that physical education achieved hygienic, educative, recreative, and
remedial objectives. Outcomes that he noted in his programs included improved health, fun, remediation of
illness and injury, one of the “new physical educators,” helped lead in the transition from exercising methodically
to developing the entire person. In 1910, he recommended that physical education programs seek organic,
psychomotor, character, and intellectual objective.
In 1934, Physical Education Association’s Committee on objectives listed physical fitness, mental health and
efficiency, social-moral character, emotional expression and control, and appreciations as the desired objectives. In
1950, these were restated by the profession: to develop and to maintain maximum physical efficiency, to develop
useful skills, to conduct oneself in socially useful ways, and to enjoy wholesome recreation.
In 1965, the Association for Health, Physical Education and Recreation stated five major objectives:
1. To help children move in a skilful and effective manner in all the selected activities in which they engage, in
the physical education program, and also in those situation that they will experience during their lifetime.
2. To develop an understanding and appreciation of movement in children and youth so that their lives will
become more meaningful propulsive, and productive.
3. To develop an understanding and appreciation of certain scientific principles concerned with movement
that relate to such factors as time, space, force, and mass-energy relationships.
4. To develop through the medium of games and sports better interpersonal relationships. ,
5. To develop the various organic systems of the body so they will respond in a healthful way to the increased
demands placed on them.
Before examining physical education’s objectives in greater detail, it is essential to understand how they
relate to those of education.
LEADERSHIP AND GROUP DYNAMICS
A leader have magnet in heart and compass in head. LEADERSHIP
“Leadership is the ability to score desirable actions from a group of followers voluntarily without the use of
coercion.” — Alfordand Beaty
“Leadership is the activity of influencing people to strive willingly for group objectives”. — George Terry
Leadership is a dynamic ability of influencing group ion a particular situation for obtaining group objectives.
It is an art, a science of enabling follow men to proceed together for the desired purpose. Leadership is a personal
quality.

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LEADERSHIP QUALITIES
Following are some of the qualities needed in a leader:-
1. PERSONALITY
Fine personality includes good physical fitness and mental alertness.
2. LOYALTY
Loyalty is the highly needed quality in any leader. Good citizenship and patriotism is resulted due to loyalty.
3. SINCERITY
Leader must be sincere enough towards the responsibility.
4. COOPERATIVE AND COORDINATIVE
Qualities of good cooperation and coordinative abilities are desirable in leader.
5. DISCIPLINE OR DUTYFULNESS
For effective leadership discipline dutifulness is essentially required for making productive effort by a leader.
6. PATIENCE
With patience good self control or calmly performing/working increases the performance and help to
proceed for better output.
7. IMPARTIALITY
Unbiased decisions, unfavourable behaviour is essentially needed in any leader to work effectively with group.
8. TACTFULNESS INTELLIGENCY INDUS-TRIOUSNESS
Leader must have the tactics to make everyone validly happy and the skills to overcome hurdles tactfully,
intelligently with a creative effort.
9. RELIABLE THINKING OR REALISTIC
Reliable thinking or realistic approach motivates leaders to choose the right and acceptable ways to move
ahead as a team for achieving goal.
10. ENGAGING PERSONALITY AND ENDURANCE (WORK POWER)
A desire to learn more and always involved himself for one or the other require work is desirable in any
leader. This is actually the quality of working ability and good utilization of leisure time.
11. MOTOR ABILITIES AND PHYSICAL SKILLS Good Motor capacity and physical skills makes
leadership more influencing. Physical Education need these abilities mainly for displaying good
demonstrations to groups.
12. PUBLIC RELATIONS
Development of any kind is impossible in isolation. Leaders must always be in good and friendly public
relations. Recognition, influence on others is only gained if one has good and wide public relations.
There are number of leadership qualities need in a leader. In short the word ‘LEADER’ itself assists us in
remembering those qualities.

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L - Loving nature loyalty

E - Enthusiasm
A - Alertness, Ability to handle situational load
D - Dedicative, Dutifulness, Discipline.
E - Engaging personality
R - Reasonable thinking, Reliability
S - Sincerity, Self control, Social ability
H - Hardworking, Honesty
I - Industriousness, Interest in related work/task
P - Personality, Physical skills.
SOCIALIZATION AND ITS ROLE IN NATIONAL INTEGRATION
Socialization is a popular topic today in discussions about sports. When we ask any of the following questions,
we are concerned about sports and socialization issues:
A. What impact do sport and sport participation have on people’s lives, characters, behaviours, thoughts,
relationships, and careers?
B. When and why do people stop playing competitive sports, and what happens to them when they do?
C. How and why do some people see themselves at athletes and dedicate themselves to playing particular
sports?
D. Why are some peoples fanatically interested in playing and/or watching sports, while others don’t seem
to care about sports?
Many of us in the sociology of sport have done research to find answers to one or more of these questions.
The search for answers has taken in different directions, depending on the theoretical frameworks we have used
to guide out thinking about sports and sport participation. The influence of theoretical perspectives will be
discussed in the first section of this chapter. Then we will consider three topics that are central to discussions of
sports and socialization:
A. The impact of being involved in sports.
B. The process of changing or ending sport participation.
C. The process of becoming involved and staying involved in sports.
In connection with these topics, I will explain how the questions previously listed have been answered in
the sociology of sport. As you read the chapter, you will see that most of the answers are incomplete and may
others are so complex that discussions about them will carry over into other chapters.
The chapter closes with information about new approaches to socialization. These approaches are based
on critical theories that emphasize socialization as a community and cultural process rather than an individual
and personal process.
COHESIVENESS IN SPORT
Anyone who has been involved in any team sport knows the value of cohesiveness. Coaches try to develop
cohesiveness in their teams because they believe cohesive teams win more games. Surely you have heard
spectators and sports announcers as well as coaches and players praise the unity, teamwork and cohesiveness
of successful teams, especially when the teams win without individual superstars. Conversely lack of cohesion
or team dissension is often cited when a team of talented invididuals fails to meet expectations. Given the
popularity of cohesiveness in sports talk it is not suprising that cohesiveness is a popular research topic. Many

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sport psychologists have examined the relatibnship between cohesiveness and team performance, and according
to the results we can answer the question 'Do cohesive teams win more games'" with "yes" "No" and "may be".
Some evidence does indicate a positive relationship between team cohesiveness and team success. One of
the most extensive and representative investigations in the sport cohesiveness literature, involving over 1,200
male intra mural basket ball players on 144 teams provides strong evidence that team cohesiveness and success
are positively related. In the first study of the overall investigation marterms (1972) looked at the in team success
are positively related. In the previous study of the overall investigation martens and peterson (1971) examined
the influence of pre season cohesiveness on team success and reported that highly cohesive teams won more
games than teams with low cohesiveness. In the third study perterson and martens (1972) looked at the influence
of team success on post season cohesiveness and observed that successful teams were more cohesive than less
successful teams.
Obviously, further research does not always clarify or help us to understand a phenomenon especially if the
research is haphazard with no systematic progression that builds upon and extends previous work. As carron
(1982) notes to date the overall stragegy of sport cohesiveness research can be described as a generally erratic
"shotgun" approach, no overall conceptual model has emerged to integrate the findings in any meaningful
way, and as with the sport personality research discussed in. chapter 3, the findings are as diverse as the studies
themselves. Although the sport cohesiveness literature is some what less diverse and more "cohesive" than the
sport personality research, the absence of an intergrating framework and clear standard definitions and measures
continues to be a major problem.
Team cohesiveness and performance in sport.
Arron's conceptual system raises numerous research possibilities but so far sport cohesiveness research has
focused almost exclusively on the cohesiveness / performance relationship. Conflicting findings on cohesiveness
and performance are cited.
The first step in sorting out the literature is to consider the definition and measurement of cohesiveness in th
e research most of the sport cohesiveness studies used the same measure the sport cohesiveness questionnaire
(martens landers & Loy, 1972), thus providing a basis for comparing findings the martens et al. Questionnare
includes two c ategories of items : (a) direct ratings of closeness or attraction to the group and (b) interpersonal
attraction or friendship ratings the direct items and friendship ratings are not highly related to each other and
they often relate differently to team performance. When the research findings as sorted out by type of measure
some consistency emerges. Most of the positive relationships involve direct cohesiveness ratings and most of
the negative relationship are found with interpersonal attraction measures. All of the major studies reporting
negative relationships used an interpersonal attraction measure Fielder 1954 Lander & Lueschen 1974 Lank 1969
Me Grath 1962). In several studies with mixed results positive relationships were found when direct measurement
were used but not when friendship ratings were used (Landers & Grwon 1971 martens & peterson, 1971 widmeyer
& martens 1978).
A second approach to dratying the literature on cohesiveness and performance is to consider key mediating
variables particularly the team factors from currpn's conceptual system of the team factors listed, the one receiving
the most attention and the one that seems to have the most impact on the sport cohesiveness / performance
relationship is the nature of the group task. Positive cohesiveness / performance relationships are reported most
often for team sports that require extensive interaction and cooperation among players, such as basket ball and
volley ball with sports that require independent performances and little interaction. Such as bouling and rifle
teams, cohesiveness may relate negatively to performance.
v v v v

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