TRANSPORT is NH7 (7700 km). The NHAI was set up in 1988.

It is responsible for
development, maintenance and management of NH.

Transport is movement of human, animal and

goods from one location to another. Transport
system is like arteries and veins in the human Expressways
body. Expressways are highways planned for high-speed traffic, having
few intersections, limited points of access or exit and a divider
between lanes for traffic moving in opposite directions. They
IMPORTANCE OF TRANSPORT:
usually have six to eight lanes.
1) It helps in better utilisation of resources.
Difference between a Highway and Expressway is the access
2) It helps in process of industrialization and urbanisation. control.
3) Removes scarcity of good during any crisis. (a) In expressways, roads are not multiples. There is a controlled
access where a vehicle can enter through a limited place and
no further. But in the case of highways, multiple roads merge
ROADWAYS:
with or cross the highways at many places.
Sher Shah Suri built the famous Grand Trunk (GT) road to (b) Expressways have several facilities like access ramps, lane
strengthen and consolidate his empire. dividers, telephone booths, CCTV cameras and mobile
This road connected Kolkata and radars.
Peshawar.
According to National Highways Authority
of India (NHAI), India has a huge network of roads, making it the Some Expressways are:
second largest road network in the world. 40 per cent of the villages
1. Agra - Lucknow Expressway-3.5 hrs
in India still lack access to all weather roads and remain isolated
during the monsoon season. 2. Yamuna Expressway-Greater Noida to Agra in 2012
3. Ahmedabad-Vadodara Expressway- India first 4 lane, 1hr , 2001
CATEGORY OF ROADS: 4. Delhi - Gurgaon Expressway- Gurgaon to Delhi, 2008
NATIONAL HIGHWAYS - The 5. Mumbai Pune Expressway- India’s first 6 lane.
main highway running through 6. Noida Greater Noida- 6 lane
the length & breadth of country
connecting major cities. It is
constructed & maintained by
Central Government. Longest NH
1. Golden Quadrilateral: The Golden Quadrilateral (GQ) is the The rural roads in India form a substantial portion of the road
largest express highway project in India. It connects India's four network. These roads constitute about 80 per cent of the total road
largest metropolis: Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata and Chennai and thus, length in the country. Most of the rural roads were initially sand
forms a quadrilateral of sorts. Bengaluru, Pune, Ahmedabad and roads. They provide vital links by moving the agricultural produce
Surat are also served by this network. and the finished products of small-scale industries from the
The main economic benefits : producing centres to the marketing centres.

• This highway interconnects many major cities and ports;

• It provides an encouragement to truck transport throughout India; OTHER ROADS

• It enables the industrial growth of all small towns through which it The other roads include the Border Roads and International
passes; Highways.

• It provides vast opportunities for transport of agricultural produce The Border Roads: The Border Road Organisation (BRO) was set up
from the hinterland to major cities and ports for export. in 1960 for strengthening defence preparedness and accelerating
economic development through improvement of roads along the
northern and north-eastern boundary of the country. This
2. North-South and East-West Corridors: The North-South-East- organisation has constructed the world's highest road from Manali
West Corridor (NS-EW) is the largest highway project in India. It (Himachal Pradesh) to Leh (in Ladakh), at an average altitude of
consists of four/six lane expressways which connect Srinagar to 4,270 metres. Apart from the construction and maintenance of
Kanyakumari and Porbandar to Silchar. roads in strategically sensitive areas, the BRO undertakes snow
clearance in high altitude areas and construction of airfields,
buildings and permanent bridges.

STATE HIGHWAYS - It connect NH, district

ADVANTAGES OF ROADWAYS
headquarters, important towards tourist
centres and minor port within the state. It is Roadways are the harbingers of economic development. The main
maintained by state government. advantages of using road transport are the following:
• It is through the roads that every village and hamlet can be
reached.
DISTRICT ROADS
• Construction cost of roads is much lower than that of the railway
These are important roads within a district connecting areas of
line.
production with markets. They also connect small towns with one
another or with the State Highways and National Highways. • Roads can be constructed even in the areas of difficult terrain and
where railway lines do not exist.

RURAL ROADS
• Roads offer door to door service and thereby, reduce the cost of Railway system has been divided into 17 zones.
loading and unloading. Roads also help farmers to move their
perishable products quickly to the markets.
TRACK SYSTEM
• Road transport supplements the other modes of transportation. It
provides link between railway stations and ports and their Based on the width of the track, the Indian Railways are divided into
hinterlands. three categories:
Broad Gauge: The distance between rails is 1.676 metre. 85 per cent
of the total length of rail route in the country.
DISADVANTAGES OF ROADWAYS:
Broad gauge railway line on the west coastal lowland known as the
Road transport has the following disadvantages: Konkan Railway Line, is 760 km long rail route connecting Roha in
• Many roads are unsurfaced and therefore, not suitable for regular Maharashtra to Mangalore in Karnataka.
vehicular traffic. Metre Gauge: The distance between rails is one metre. It accounts
• Roads are not properly maintained. Poor road surfaces cause for about 11 per cent of the total route length.
heavy loss in wear and tear of vehicles. Narrow Gauge: The distance between rails is 0.762 metre and 0.610
• There are multiple check-posts, toll tax and octroi duties collection metre. It accounts for about 4 per cent of the total route length. It is
points. mainly confined to the hilly areas.
• The traffic on Indian roads, especially in cities, is too high.
ADVANTAGES OF RAILWAYS
RAILWAYS • Railways constitute one of the most efficient and cost-effective
The Railways constitute the principal mode of transportation for forms of transportation. Railways help in the easy movement of
freight and passengers. It brings together people from the farthest bulky goods and perishable commodities to distant places.
corners of the country for conducting business, sightseeing, • Railways transport raw materials to the production units and
pilgrimage, education, etc. finished goods to the markets.
Railways were first introduced to India in 1853 when a line was • Railways have brought the villages closer to the cities and have
constructed from Mumbai to Thane covering a distance of 34 km. helped to transfer new ideas and innovations to the rural areas.
In 1951 the systems were nationalised as one unit, becoming one of • Railways help in reducing sufferings during natural calamities.
the largest networks in the world. • Railways facilitate easy movement of police, troops and defence
At present, it is one of the largest and busiest rail networks in the equipment.
world, transporting over 18 million passengers and more than 2 • Railways provide comfortable journey as the trains have enough
million tonnes of freight daily. It is the world's largest employer, space to stretch legs and move in the corridors.
with more than 1.4 million employees. The railways traverse the
length and breadth of the country, covering 7,137 stations .
• Rail travel is safer and comfortable for families with babies and • Air transport is of particular importance during natural calamities.
elders. • The speed and ease with which aeroplanes can cross mountain
barriers, sandy deserts, large expanses of water or forests make the
DISADVANTAGES OF RAILWAYS air transport indispensable.

• It lacks flexibility of routes.

Difficulty to lay track in hilly areas DISADVANTAGES OF AIRWAYS
remote forested areas. • Air transport is costly.
• very long journey can be tiring. • It depends on weather conditions. Flights are often delayed due to
• Steam engine causes air and noise bad weather.
pollution. • Air transport is run on petroleum which is a non-renewable source
• They cannot cross oceans. of energy.
• Air transport can carry small tonnage but it has high freight
AIR TRANSPORT: charges.
It started between Allahabad WATER TRANSPORT:
and Naini in 1911. The Airports India is gifted with an extensive
Authority of India is the nodal network of waterways in the form of
agency responsible for rivers, canals, backwaters, creeks
creating, upgrading, and a long coastline accessible
maintaining & managing civil through the seas and the oceans.
aviation infrastructure.

INLAND WATERWAYS
PAWAN HANS
Pawan Hans Helicopters Ltd. (PHHL) was established in 1985 with Inland waterways include rivers, canals, backwaters and creeks
the primary objective of providing helicopter support services to which are deep enough to allow the ships and boats to navigate
the oil sector in offshore exploration, operate in the hilly and safely.
inaccessible areas and make available charter flights for promotion Why the rivers of Peninsular India are not ideal for navigation ?
of tourism.
First, these rivers are seasonal as they are rain-fed.
Second, these rivers are comparatively shorter than the rivers of
ADVANTAGES OF AIRWAYS northern India.
• It is the fastest and comfortable mode Third, these rivers are marked by a number of waterfalls.
of transport.
Inland Waterways Authority of India (IWAI) is the statutory authority India has a long coastline of 7,517 kilometres forming one of the
in charge of the waterways in India. It does the function of building biggest peninsulas in the world. It has 12 Major ports and 187
the necessary infrastructure in these waterways, surveying the notified Minor and Intermediate ports.
economic feasibility of new projects and also administration and
regulation.
PORTS
1. National Waterway No. 1 (NW-1): It comprises Ganga-Bhagirathi-
Hooghly River System which connects Haldia-Kolkata-Farakka- Major ports handle over 80% of all cargo traffic. These ports have
Munger-Patna-Varanasi-Allahabad. been classified into Major, Minor and Intermediate type.

It stretches to more than 1620 kms .

MAJOR PORTS

2. National Waterway No. 2 (NW-2): The river Brahmaputra 1. Kolkata (West Bengal): It is a riverine port located on the bank of
connecting Dhubri-Pandu (Guwahati)-Tezpur-Neamati-Dibrugarh- the Hooghly River.
Sadiya stretching to about 891 kms was declared a National 2. Haldia (West Bengal): This port has been developed on the river
Waterway in 1988. Hooghly to relieve pressure on Kolkata.
3. Paradip (Odisha): It is located on the coast of Odisha and handles
3. National Waterway No. 3 (NW-3): It runs from Kollam to iron ore and coal.
Kottapuram. It comprises 168 km of west coast canal along with 4. Vishakhapatnam (Andhra Pradesh): It is India's deepest
Champakara canal and Udyogmandal canal. landlocked port handling crude oil and petroleum products.
5. Chennai (Tamil Nadu): It is the second largest port in terms of
4. National Waterway No. 4 (NW-4): It connects the States of Andhra volume of traffic handled and is the oldest artificial harbour on the
Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and the Union Territory of Puducherry. east coast of India.
6. Tuticorin (Tamil Nadu): This port is located on the east coast of
India.
5. National Waterway No. 5 (NW-5): It comprises Talcher-Dhamra
stretch of river Brahmani, Geonkhali-Charbatia stretch of East 7. Kandla (Gujarat): It is a Tidal port and a free trade zone located at
Coast Canal, Charbatia-Dhamra stretch of Matai river along with the eastern end of Rann of Kutch.
Mahanadi delta river system (585 km). 8 . Mumbai (Maharashtra): It is a natural harbour on the west coast
and is also the biggest port of India.

6. National Waterway No. 6 (NW-6): It is a waterway between 9. Jawaharlal Nehru (Nava Sheva) Port near Mumbai: It is the
Lakhipur and Bhanga of the Barak River. biggest ultra-modern seaport off Mumbai. It is equipped with
modern facilities having mechanised container berths for handling
dry cargo and service berths.
OCEANIC WATERWAYS
10. Mormugao (Goa): It is a natural harbour, situated at the entrance loading and unloading of cargo for providing safe parking or
of the Zuari estuary, in Goa. It occupies fifth position in terms of ships. anchorage to ships.
total traffic handled. 4. Ports are very large with 4. When natural harbours have
buildings and warehouses for all the facilities of ports they
storing goods and well-built serve as ports. For example,
ADVANTAGES OF WATERWAYS transport system. Mumbai is a natural harbour and
also the biggest port in India.
• It is the cheapest means of transport.
• It is most suitable for carrying heavy and bulky material.
• It is a fuel-efficient and eco-friendly mode of transport.
• Travel by ships and cruise liners is comfortable as it provides lot
WASTE MANAGEMENT
of space and other facilities concerning daily life like catering, Waste - any substance which is discarded after primary use or is
medicines, doctors, communication, entertainment, sports, etc. worthless, defective and of no use.
• Water transport is safe and has less traffic in comparison to road
and air transport. SOURCES OF WASTE
Depending on their source of origin, wastes are classified into the
DISADVANTAGES OF WATERWAYS following broad categories:
• It depends on weather conditions. 1. DOMESTIC WASTE
• It needs long travelling hours which causes sea sickness. Wastes generated due to domestic activities are called domestic
wastes. Food leftovers, fruits and vegetable peels, bits of paper,
• Water transport is limited to the areas where rivers are navigable
packets, polythene bags, bottles, empty metal and aluminium cans,
and oceanic routes exist.
scrap metals, glass pieces, cotton, rags, discarded clothes, ashes
Difference between Port and Harbour from burning coal, sewage from toilets, batteries, expired
PORT HARBOUR medicines, chemicals, etc., are some of the examples of domestic
1. Ports are man-made 1. Harbours are natural or wastes.
commercial places built along created places, connecting a
the coastline. piece of land with a large
waterbody, which serve as 2. INDUSTRIAL WASTE
ports. Wastes from various types of small and large scale industries are
2. The location of ports is 2. Natural harbours are called industrial wastes. Industrial wastes include any material that
chosen along the coastline surrounded by land on most is rendered useless during or left over in a manufacturing process.
where water is navigable and is sides but have an entrance
Industry uses a great deal of energy that produces waste gases and
close to land facilities and point to the sea.
other materials. Sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides emitted from
infrastructure.
3. The main purpose of ports is 3. Harbours are utilised mainly
power stations cause health hazards because of their link with acid 7. ELECTRONIC WASTE OR E-WASTE
rain. Electronic waste refers to various forms of electric and electronic
equipment that have ceased to be of any value to its users because
3. AGRICULTURAL WASTE they have exhausted their utility value due to redundancy,
replacement or breakage. These include refrigerators, televisions,
Agricultural wastes mainly include crop residue, husks and straws, washing machines, microwaves, computers and mobile phones.
wood waste, sawdust, molasses, tobacco waste, coconut waste
products, rubber waste, nut shells, fruit and vegetable peels,
manure, etc. Most of the agricultural wastes are recycled, used for 8. TOXIC AND NON-TOXIC WASTE
gobar gas and as manure. Agricultural wastes can cause Certain wastes are classified as toxic wastes because they pose a
environmental problems, if they are not disposed of properly. serious threat to human health and the environment. These wastes
result from industrial processes and products. They also include
4. COMMERCIAL WASTE chemicals used in modern agriculture and medical waste from
hospitals. The use of chemicals has increased causing health
Wastes from commercial houses, stores, godowns, hospitals and hazards to living beings.
offices are known as commercial wastes. These wastes contain
waste paper, torn out gunny bags, waste packing materials like
straw, broken crockery, glasses, food wastes, packing materials, SPOILAGE OF LANDSCAPE
wood pieces and cans. Hospital waste comprises syringes, needles, Spoilage of landscape refers to the accumulation of heaps of
plastic bottles, bandage, gloves and dead human tissues. garbage and waste that is simply dumped onto vacant land and left
to decompose. Open dumps not only ruin the natural beauty of the
5. CONSTRUCTION WASTE land but also provide a home to rats and other disease carrying
organisms. Both open dumps and landfills may contain poisonous
Wastes generated at construction sites, mainly due to demolition substances that seep into the groundwater or flow into streams and
and construction rubble is called construction waste. It includes lakes.
bricks, pipes, plastic, roofing, and insulating materials, asbestos
pieces, etc.
POLLUTION

6. MINING WASTE The word 'pollute' means to degrade or to contaminate. Pollution is

thus, an unfavourable modification of the natural world caused
Wastes generated during mining operations, excavations, etc. are entirely or partly due to direct or indirect actions of human beings.
called mining wastes. They include tailings, slag heaps, debris, etc.
Some mining processes use large volumes of chemicals or liquids, Pollution is caused by human activities like addition of toxic
which add to the waste generated. These can be toxic or hazardous. chemicals through the atmosphere into the biosphere.
WASTE ACCUMULATION AND GLOBAL PROBLEMS Ozone Layer Depletion
The problem with waste is that it remains in our environment. We In the second layer of the atmosphere, i.e., the Stratosphere which
move waste from one place to another but never get rid of it lies at the height of 20 km to 50 km from the Earth's surface, lies the
completely. Nature has recycled waste materials for millions of Ozone layer. In spite of its low density, the Ozone layer plays an
years. However, human population has increased so rapidly during important role in our life.
the last century that the environment is now threatened by our Due to the presence of Ozone layer, ultraviolet rays and infrared
activities and the wastes they produce. rays from the sun cannot reach Earth directly. Ozone layer absorbs
the harmful ultraviolet rays from the sun and protects the life on
Global Warming: When organic waste decomposes, carbondioxide Earth from their harmful effects.
and methane gas is produced. Both carbon dioxide and methane
are Greenhouse gases, which contribute to global warming and ACID RAIN
climate change. The rate of absorption of solar radiation by earth
and its emission back into space as infrared waves balances the Acid Rain means the presence of excessive acids in rainwater.
heat on the earth. The carbon dioxide and other gases form a Burning of coal, wood or petroleum produce sulphur and nitrogen.
blanket around the globe which prevents the passage of infrared These two react with oxygen and are converted into their respective
waves from the earth back into space. oxides-sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide, which are soluble in
water. During rain, these oxides react with large quantities of water
vapour in the atmosphere to form acids like sulphuric acid,
Effects of Global Warming: sulphurous acid, nitric acid and nitrous acid.
1. Global temperature is likely to rise by 2°C to 5°C during the next
century. EFFECTS OF ACID RAIN
2. Due to rise in temperature by 2°C to 5°C, there is a chance of (i) Acid rain increases acidity in the soil and destroys forests and
melting of ice caps on the Earth's poles. This melting of ice will crops.
result in the rise of the sea level.
(ii) It corrodes buildings, monuments, statues, bridges, fences and
3. Due to an increase in temperature there will be serious climatic railings. For example, acid rain produced by the pollutants from the
changes. This will bring various changes in wind and rain pattern. Mathura oil refinery has been turning the white marble surface of
4. Higher temperature will cause rise in transpiration, which in turn, the Taj Mahal into yellow.
will affect the groundwater table. (iii) It poses a serious threat to human health, since it contaminates
5. Insects and pests will increase in the warmer climatic conditions. air and water.
Thus, pathogenic diseases will multiply. (iv) It affects the human nervous system by causing neurological
diseases.
(v) Aquatic species are affected due to acid rain.
(vi) Acid rain affects the plant growth. Plant leaves get burnt and Effect on Plants: Waste accumulation has dangerous effect on plant
dry. life. Plant life is affected either by direct deposition of harmful
toxins from wastes or indirectly through soil.

HEALTH HAZARDS
SPREAD OF DISEASE THROUGH CONTAMINATION The toxins cause:

Several incidents around the world have demonstrated the potential (i) different types of leaf injuries.
harm of accumulation of waste on human health. Waste that is not (ii) premature leaf fall.
properly managed is a serious health hazard. Unattended waste (iii) decrease in transpiration.
dumped in the open attracts flies, rats and other creatures that act
as vectors of the diseases and spread them among human beings. (iv) reduction in the rate of photosynthesis.
Domestic waste poses a serious threat since it is organic in nature, (v) reduction in biological nitrogen fixation.
it undergoes fermentation and creates conditions favourable for the
(vi) dust deposited on leaves block the stomata of plants. These
survival and growth of pathogens.
decrease the rate of transpiration and inhibit the absorption of
nutrients from soil.
EFFECT ON TERRESTRIAL LIFE (vii) smoke emitted by burning of waste causes reduction in root
Terrestrial life includes all the organisms that live on land - human and shoot lengths, number of leaves and number of grains per
beings, plants and animals. spike in case of crops like wheat.

Effect on Human Beings: Accumulation of solid waste looks ugly, Effect on Animals and Birds: Scavangers and stray animals like
smells foul, attracts insects, rats and other animals that spread dogs, rats, pigs and cows are directly affected by waste when they
diseases. Burning of waste in the open dumpyards causes smoke feed on the waste for food. Sometimes these animals consume
and foul smelling air. In addition, rainwater can drain through refuse toxins or non-degradable substances like plastic carry bags present
and carry harmful substances to different places. in the waste and die due to choking. The wastes consumed by
animals also lead to many diseases and other problems. For
example, according to a study, mice that were fed on high levels of
Sanitary landfills are not fit for human settlements because toxins had difficulty in reproducing and so did their offspring.
methane and carbon dioxide gases are released in the first two
years. These gases are produced when solid wastes start
decomposing underground. EFFECT ON AQUATIC LIFE
Waste accumulation can cause significant damage to aquatic life,
both fresh water and marine. Two categories of waste that cause
greatest damage to aquatic life are - pesticides, which run off
agricultural lands and industrial and domestic wastes that are
improperly disposed of into water bodies, Over one million marine incineration. In fact, segregation of waste is the key to effective
animals including mammals, turtles, fish, sharks, etc. are killed waste management.
each year due to plastic debris in the oceans. Urban residential colonies should undertake collective efforts for
safe disposal of domestic as well as sweepings from the gardens
Biomagnification: The term Biomagnification means increasing the and public parks. These sweepings can be converted into compost
concentration of various toxic substances along the food chain. and used for the maintenance of these gardens and parks.
Toxic substances at the level of primary producers get Sorting out of the reusable material from heaps of waste may often
concentrated at each trophic level as they move up the food chain. involve much manual labour. In a country like India, the poor rag
The phenomenon of concentrated toxic deposition at the higher pickers make a living by sorting out reusable and recyclable items
trophic level is known as bio-accumulation. A small amount of toxic from discarded solids.
constituent which is neither excreted nor metabolised, gets
increased as the food chain moves upward from one trophic level to
the next and the toxic constituents become concentrated. SEGREGATION OF WASTE
Waste can be segregated as:

SEGREGATION 1. Biodegradable; and 2. Non-biodegradable.

'Segregation of waste' means dividing the waste into different Biodegradable waste includes organic waste, e.g. kitchen waste,
categories like dry and wet or vegetables, fruits, flowers, leaves from the garden, and paper.
biodegradable and non- Non-biodegradable waste can be further segregated into:
biodegradable.
a) Recyclable waste plastics, paper, glass, metal, etc.; and
Dry waste consists of waste that
b) Toxic waste old medicines, paints, chemicals, bulbs, spray cans,
does not decay and is non-
fertilizers and pesticide containers, batteries, shoe polish.
biodegradable. Ex aluminium
foils, tetra packs, plastic c) Soiled hospital waste such as cloth soiled with blood and other
products, broken crockery, steel body fluids. Toxic and soiled waste must be disposed of with
utensils and glass. utmost care.
Wet waste comprises waste that is organic in nature and is
biodegradable, i.e., it can be decomposed or broken down by living DUMPING
organisms. Ex- vegetables and fruit peels, stale food, rotten fruits
Open Dumping: In this method,
and vegetables, etc.
waste materials are dumped in open
When waste is segregated, there occurs a reduction in the volume low lands far away from the city.
of waste that reaches landfills. Air and water pollution is This method is not environment
considerably reduced and it becomes easier to apply different friendly.
processes of waste disposal like composting, recycling and
This is the cheapest method and does not need much planning. The (v) The fifth phase depletes the organic matter, and the system
open pits spoil the sight of the area and become a breeding ground returns to aerobic state.
for mosquitoes, flies, insects, etc., that are the carriers of harmful
diseases. They give out foul odour. The burning of waste material in
the open dumps pollutes the air. Another danger of open dumping ADVANTAGES:
is that rainwater could carry the harmful substances to the nearby The advantages of sanitary landfill as opposed to open dumping
streams, ponds or lakes and if the water seeps down it could are:
pollute the groundwater.
• It is free from air pollution from burning.
• The health problems are minimised since flies, rats and other
Sanitary Landfill: In this method, the pests cannot breed in the landfill because of the covered wastes.
waste is packed and dumped daily
• It is mostly free from fire hazards.
at the site and is covered with earth
to prevent insects or rodents from
entering into the landfill. The waste PLANTATION AT LANDFILL SITE
then is subjected to bacterial
A vegetative cover should be provided over the landfill site in
decomposition. Physical, chemical
accordance with the following specifications:
and biological reactions take place
generating different gases which is (i) Locally adopted non-edible perennial plants that are resistant to
used to generate power. drought and extreme
temperatures should be
Sanitary landfill is a way of disposing refuse on land without
planted.
creating nuisances or hazards to public health or safety.
(ii) The plants grown should
In a sanitary landfill biological method of disposing of waste is
be such that their roots do
used. The waste undergoes the following five phases:
not penetrate more than 30
(i) In the first phase of operation, aerobic bacteria depletes the cms. This condition should
available oxygen and causes the temperature to increase. apply till the landfill is
(ii) In the second phase, anaerobic conditions get established and stabilised.
lead to (iii) Selected plants should have the ability to thrive on low-nutrient
the evolution of hydrogen and carbon dioxide. soil with minimum nutrient addition.
(iii) Phase three establishes population of bacteria and the (iv) Plantation should be made in sufficient density to minimise soil
beginning of methanogenic activity, i.e., production of methane erosion.
from the decomposition of organic matter.
(iv) In the fourth phase the methanogenic activity becomes
MUNICIPAL WASTE MANAGEMENT
stabilised.
1. Collection of Municipal Solid Wastes not exposed to open atmosphere and are aesthetically acceptable
The following steps should be taken by the municipal authorities: and user-friendly;

(i) Organising house-to- (iii) Storage facilities or 'bins' should have 'easy to operate' design
house collection of municipal for handling, transfer and transportation of waste.
solid wastes. (iv) Manual handling of waste should be avoided.
(ii) Devising collection of
waste from slums and 3. Transportation of Municipal Solid
squatter areas or localities. Wastes
(iii) Bio-medical wastes and Vehicles used for transportation of
industrial wastes should not wastes should be covered. This
be mixed with municipal prevents the wastes from being
solid wastes. scattered. Waste should not be visible to public, nor exposed to
(iv) Horticultural and construction wastes should be separately open environment.
collected and disposed of.
(v) The waste should be segregated into biodegradable and non- 4. Community Participation in
biodegradable. Segregation of Municipal Solid
(vi) Waste (garbage, dry leaves) should not be burnt. Wastes
(vii) Stray animals should not be allowed to move around waste The municipal authorities should
storage facilities. undertake phased programme to
ensure community participation in
waste segregation.
2. Storage of Municipal Solid Wastes
The following criteria should be taken into account while
establishing and maintaining COMPOSTING
storage facilities: Composting of waste is an aerobic
(i) Storage facilities should be set (in the presence of air) method of
up and established by taking into decomposing solid wastes. The
account quantities of waste organic wastes from households are
generation in an area and its made to undergo decomposition in
population density. such a way that bacteria and other
micro-organisms break them down
(ii) These facilities are to be so and produce a safe, clean and soil-like material called compost.
designed that wastes stored are
 (vi) It checks soil erosion and silting on embankments.
In India, both the manual as well as (vii) It reduces cost as there is no need for excess water, fertilizers
mechanical methods of composting are and pesticides.
used. In the rural areas, layers of
vegetable waste and night soils are
alternated in a shallow hole dug in the INCINERATION
ground. The mixture is turned regularly In cities, vacant areas for
for about three months to provide air to disposal sites are not
the mixture. Then the compost is left for very many; so
another month without turning for the process to take effect. This incineration process is
method of composting is known as the Indore Method. used for waste disposal
by industries and
municipalities.
Incineration is the
In the mechanical process, used in process of controlled
Bengaluru and adopted by other cities in high temperature
the country, the waste material is placed in oxidation of primarily organic compounds that release thermal
layers about one metre deep. The material energy and produce carbon dioxide and water. In short, incineration
is not turned at all but it decomposes involves burning of wastes at a very high temperature.
completely in about five months. This Incineration is a useful technology to deal with large quantities of
method of composting is known as the organic hazardous wastes that have high calorific value and cannot
Bengaluru Method. be dealt with by other methods. By this method pathogenic
organisms are killed and the volume of the waste is reduced upto
50 per cent. However, incineration process has its limitations -

ADVANTAGES OF COMPOSTING (i) it is quite expensive;

The major benefits of composting are: (ii) it generates ash and combustion gases which have an adverse
impact on human health and environment;
(i) It enhances soil nutrients and water retention capacity of soils.
(iii) incineration consumes significant amount of energy to achieve
(ii) It suppresses plant diseases. high temperature.
(iii) If rejuvenates poor soils by adding humus.
(iv) It absorbs odours and degrades volatile organic compounds.
(v) It prevents pollution by preventing pollutants in storm water run-
off from draining into water resources.
REDUCE-REUSE-RECYCLE WASTE some value, for instance glass, metal pieces, rubber,
Waste can be effectively wood fibres and paper products.
managed by using the following In developing countries like India, some of the waste materials like
three R's of waste management: old glass bottles, steel tyres, tin cans are reused. For example,
(i) Reducing the Waste; shoes or chappals are made from old tyres, water bags are made
(ii) Reusing the Waste; and from leather, lamps are made from tin cans, etc.

(iii) Recycling the Waste. For example, a beautiful garden (Rock Garden) has been created by
Nek Chand in Chandigarh using waste products like tin cans,
bottles, broken pieces of crockery, etc.
REDUCING THE WASTE Some solid wastes from the industry can be utilised directly. Flyash
The waste can be reduced by making from power plants is used as a substitute for cement. Bricks are
use of the following methods: made from flyash. Flyash is also used in making roads and filling
up low-lying areas.
(a) Change of Process: In industries,
changes can be made in the
production process to reduce waste RECYCLING OF WASTE
generation. This reduction can be Recycling means treating the
achieved by either changing the material used to finish the product waste before it is used in a
or by using more efficiently the input materials in the production manufacturing process.
process or both. Bagasse is used in the
(b) Waste Concentration: By using scientific techniques such as manufacture of paper pulp.
precipitation and evaporation the amount of liquid waste can be This helps to save trees which
reduced. Incineration can be used to get rid of inflammable wastes. are normally used for making
paper pulp. Bagasse is also
(c) Segregation of Waste: First of all, non-hazardous waste are
used for making packaging
separated from hazardous waste rather than dumping them
material for dairy products.
together. Then the small amount of hazardous waste can be treated.
Paper industry recycles pieces of wood from furniture industry,
We can dispose of a large amount of non-hazardous waste in the
used and discarded cloth and used paper.
traditional ways.
Plastics are recycled by plastic manufacturers. About 80 per cent of
the plastic waste is recycled in India.
REUSING THE WASTE
In our houses and in industries
ROADS FROM PLASTIC WASTE
many materials are discarded as
wastes. These materials have
A Government of India Order in November 2015 made it mandatory • Plastic increases the aggregate impact value and improves the
for all road developers in quality of flexible pavements. Wear and tear of the roads is also
the country to use waste quite low.
plastic, along with • This road construction process is eco-friendly, with no toxic gases
bituminous mixes, for being released.
constructing the roads.
This was done to • Plastic waste helps increase the strength of the road, reducing
overcome the growing road fatigue.
problem of plastic waste • These roads have better resistance towards rain water and cold
disposal in the country. weather.
The technology for this
• Since a large amount of plastic waste is required for a small
was developed by the 'Plastic Man' of India, Prof. Rajagopalan
stretch of road, the amount of waste plastic strewn around gets
Vasudevan, Professor of Chemistry at Thiagarajar College of
tremendously reduced.
Engineering, Madurai.
The plastic waste items that can be used for road construction
include plastic carry bags, plastic cups, plastic packaging for
potato chips, biscuits, chocolates, etc.
For making roads, the plastic waste material is first shredded to a
particular size using a shredding machine. The aggregate mix is
heated at 165°C and transferred to the mixing chamber, and the
bitumen is heated to 160°C to result in good binding.
The shredded plastic waste is then added to the aggregate. It gets
coated uniformly over the aggregate within 30 to 60 seconds, giving
an oily look. The plastic waste coated aggregate is mixed with hot
bitumen and the resulting mix is used for road construction.

ADVANTAGES:
The advantages of using waste plastics for road construction are
the following:
• The process is easy and does not need any new machinery.
• For every kilo of stone, 50 gms of bitumen is used and 1/10th of
this is plastic waste; this reduces the amount of bitumen being
used.